Теоретический курс английского языка - билеты, ответы на билеты (ГАК)

Вопросы ГАК

по теоретическому курсу

английского языка

THEORETICAL PHONETICS

1. Segmental phonetics and phonology: phonemes and allophones

2.      Suprasegmental phonetics and phonology: syllable and word-stress

3. Suprasegmental phonetics and phonology: prosody and intonation

1. Segmental phonetics and phonology: phonemes and allophones

Phoneme as the smallest unit of phonology. Definitions of the phoneme. Main trends in phoneme theory: functional, psychological, physical. Types of phonemes. Phoneme and allophones. Principal and subsidiary allophones. Modifications of phonemes in speech: accommodation, assimilation, elision and reduction. Types of transcription.

2.      Suprasegmental phonetics and phonology: syllable and word-stress

The syllabic structure of English and Russian. Definitions of the syllable. Types of syllables. Theories of syllable formation and syllable division. Functional characteristics of the syllable. Graphic characteristics of the syllable.

Stress, its types. The nature of word-stress. Qualitative and quantitative components of word-stress. Degrees of word-stress. Tendencies in the placement of word-stress. Functions of word-stress: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive. The most common stress patterns in English and in Russian. Word-stress and sentence-stress.

3.   Suprasegmental phonetics and phonology: prosody and intonation

Prosody. Prosodic units. Intonation. Definitions of intonation: Intonation in the works of Russian and foreign scholars. Components of intonation. The pitch component of intonation. The units of the pitch component of intonation: pitch range, pitch level and terminal tone. The phonological status of English terminal tones. The functions of speech melody. Sentence (utterance) stress. Types of utterance stress: nuclear, non-nuclear, full stress, partial stress. Tempo. Degrees and types of tempo. Functions of tempo. Pauses. Types of pauses. Functions of pauses. Rhythm. Stress-timed and syllable-timed rhythm. Two approaches to rhythmic division: formal and semantic (grammatical). Types of rhythm. Rhythmic units in poetry and prose. Functions of rhythm. Utterance, its intonation structure.

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА

1. Сегментная фонетика и фонология: фонемы и аллофоны

2. Сверхсегментная фонетика и фонология: слог и словесное ударение

3. Сверхсегментная фонетика и фонология: просодия и интонация

1. Сегментная фонетика и фонология: фонемы и аллофоны

            Фонема как наименьшая единица фонологического уровня. Определения фонемы. Главные направления в фонемной теории: функциональное, психологическое, физическое. Типы фонем. Фонема и аллофоны. Главные и второстепенные аллофоны. Модификации фонем в речи: аккомодация, ассимиляция, выпадение, редукция. Типы транскрипции.

2. Сверхсегментная фонетика и фонология: слог и словесное ударение

            Структура слога в английском и русском языках. Определения слога. Типы слогов. Теории слогообразования и слогоделения. Функции слога. Графические характеристики слога.

            Ударение и его типы. Природа словесного ударения. Количественный и качественный компоненты словесного ударения. Тенденции расстановки ударений в слове. Функции словесного ударения: конститутивная, дистинктивная, идентифицирующая. Основные акцентные модели в английском и русском языках. Словесное и фразовое ударение.

3. Сверхсегментная фонетика и фонология: просодия и интонация

            Просодия. Просодические единицы. Интонация. Определения интонации. Интонация в работах отечественных и зарубежных лингвистов.

            Компоненты интонации. Высотный (тональный) компонент интонации. Единицы тонального компонента: диапазон, уровень, терминальный тон. Фонологический статус английских терминальных тонов. Функции речевой мелодики.

            Фразовое ударение. Типы фразового ударения: ядерное, неядерное, полное, частичное.

            Темп. Виды темпа. Функции темпа.

            Паузы. Типы пауз. Функции пауз.

            Ритм. Подходы к ритмическому делению фразы: формальный и семантический (грамматический). Виды ритма.

            Интонационная структура высказывания.

Литература:

1. Васильев, В. А. Фонетика английского языка. Теоретический курс [Текст]: учебник/ В. А. Васильев. – М.: Высшая школа, 1970. – 324 с.
2. Борисова, Л. В. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка [Текст]: учеб. пособие для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз./ Л. В. Борисова, А. А. Метлюк. – Минск: Вышэйшая школа, 1980. – 144 с.
3. Леонтьева, С. Ф. Теоретическая фонетика современного английского языка [Текст]: учеб. для студентов педагогических вузов и университетов/ С. Ф. Леонтьева. – 3-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Издательство «Менеджер», 2002. – 336 с. (и другие издания)
4. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка [Текст]: учеб. для студ. ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз./ М. А. Соколова [и др.]. – М.: Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 1996. – 286 с. (и другие издания)
5. Шевченко, Т. И. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка [Текст]: учебник/ Т. И. Шевченко. – М.: Высшая школа, 2006. – 191 с.
6. Бурая, Е. А. Фонетика современного английского языка. Теоретический курс [Текст]: учебник для студ. лингв. вузов и фак./ Е. А. Бурая, И. Е. Галочкина, Т. И. Шевченко. – М.: Издательский центр «Академия», 2006. – 272 с.

 

Lexicology

1. The morphological structure of the English word.
2. Types of word-formation in English.
3. Causes, nature and results of semantic change.
4. Homonymy. Classifications of homonyms. Sources of homonymy.
5. Semantic, lexico-semantic and proper lexical word relationships.

1.      The morphological structure of the English word.

The morpheme, its definition and general characteristic. Types of  morphemes: semantic classification (root, prefix, suffix, inflection) and structural classification (free, bound, semi-free morphemes). Morphemic analysis and word-formation analysis: their definitions, aims, Difficulties of morphemic analysis.

2.      Types of word-formation in English.

Affixation (prefixation and suffixation), word-composition, conversion, shortening (clipping, abbreviation, blending), postpositivation, reversion.

(Definitions; classification of structural and semantic patterns; productivity and its causes).

3.      Causes, nature and results of semantic change.

Causes of semantic change: extralinguistic (historical, social, psychological) and linguistic (ellipsis, differentiation of synonyms, fixed context, linguistic analogy). Nature of semantic change: metaphor and metonymy. Results of semantic change: narrowing, broadening, amelioration, deterioration.

4. Homonymy. Classifications of homonyms. Sources of homonymy.

Homonymy, its definition. Classifications of homonyms: 1) homophones, homographs, perfect homonyms; 2) full and partial homonyms; 3) lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Sources of homonymy: convergent sound development, split of polysemy, borrowing, word-formation.

5. Semantic, lexico-semantic and proper lexical word relationships.

Semantic word relationships. Free word-combinations. Proper lexical word relationships. Set non-phraseological units.

Лексикология.

1.      Морфологическая структура английского слова.

2.      Типы словообразования в английском языке.

3.      Причина природа и результаты семантических изменений.

4.      Омонимия в английском языке. Классификации омонимов. Источники омонимии.

5.      Семантические, лексико-семантические и собственно лексические связи слов.

1.            Морфологическая структура английского слова.

Понятие морфемы. Типы морфем: семантическая классификация (корень, приставка, суффикс, окончание) и структурная классификация (свободные, связанные и полусвободные морфемы). Морфемный и словообразовательный анализ: определения и цели. Трудности морфемного анализа.

2.            Типы словообразования в английском языке.

Аффиксация (префиксация и суффиксация), словосложение, конверсия, сокращение (усечения, аббревиатуры, телескопные слова), постпозитивация, реверсия (по каждому из указанных типов: определение, классификации структурных и семантических моделей, продуктивность и ее причины).

3.            Причины природа и результаты семантических изменений.

Причины семантических изменений: экстралингвистические (исторические, социальные, психологические) и лингвистические (эллипсис, дифференциация синонимов, устойчивый контекст, лингвистическая аналогия). Природа семантических изменений: метафора и метонимия. Результаты семантических изменений: сужение, расширение, «улучшение» и «ухудшение» значения.

4.            Омонимия в английском языке. Классификации омонимов. Источники омонимии.

Определение омонимов. Классификации омонимов: 1) омофоны, омографы, собственно омонимы; 2) полные и частичные омонимы; 3) лексические, грамматические и лексико-грамматические омонимы. Источники омонимии: сходящееся развитие звуковой формы, распад полисемии, заимствование, словообразование.

5.      Семантические, лексико-семантические и собственно лексические связи слов.

Семантические связи слов и свободные словосочетания. Собственно лексические связи слов и фразеологические сочетания. Лексико-семантические связи слов и устойчивые нефразеологические словосочетания.

Литература:

1. Arnold, I.V. The English Word / I.V. Arnold – М.: Высш. шк., – 1986. –295 p. (и др. издания.)
2. Ginzburg, R. S., Khidekel, S. S., Knyazeva, G. Y., Sankin,A. A. A Course in Modern English Lexicology / R. S. Ginzburg, S. S. Khidekel, G. Y. Knyazeva, A. A. Sankin – М.: Higher School Publishing Hourse, – 1966. – 275 p. (и др. издания.)
3. Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. English Lexicology/ G. B. Antrushina, O.V. Afanasyeva, N.N. Morozova – M.: Высш. шк., 1985. – 223 с.
4. Кульгавова, Л. В. Учебно-практические материалы по дисциплине «Лексикология английского языка» (для студентов лингвистических университетов)./ Л.В. Кульгавова – Иркутск: ИГЛУ, 2005. – 587 c.

 

Theoretical English Grammar

1. The verbocentric conception of the sentence. The valency theory. The valency-actant scheme of the sentence.
2. Communicative types of sentences and their classifications. The functional perspective theory and its basic notions: theme and rheme.
3. The notion of opposition. Types of oppositions and cases of their neutralization.
4. The problem of parts of speech in Modern English. Diagnostic criteria for the classification of parts of speech. Different approaches to the classification of parts of speech.
5. The problem of parts of the sentence. Main and secondary parts of the sentence.
6. Fundamentals of the IC method. Syntagmatic relationships between the words in the sentence: predicative, coordinate, subordinate.
7. The verb: the grammatical categories of Tense and Aspect.

1. The verbocentric conception of the sentence. The valency theory. The valency-actant scheme of the sentence.

Verbocentric conception of the sentence and the valency theory. Semantic and syntactic structure of the sentence. Semantic and syntactic valency. The notion of actant. The valency-actant scheme of the sentence. Types of actants. Semantic agreement of the predicate with its actants. Types of predicates.

2. Communicative types of sentences and their classifications. The functional perspective theory and its basic notions: theme and rheme.

The notion of actual division of the sentence. The actual division and grammatical division of the sentence into parts of sentence. Basic concepts: theme, rheme.  Reduplicated theme and intensified (complicated) theme. Reduplicated rheme and intensified (complicated) rheme. Functional sentence perspective means in English (grammatical, lexical, graphical).  Communicative types of sentences.

3. The notion of opposition. Types of oppositions and cases of their neutralization.

Privative opposition (the strong and the weak, the marked and the unmarked members of the opposition) and cases of  its neutralization; gradual and equipollent oppositions.

4. The problem of parts of speech in Modern English. Diagnostic criteria for parts of speech. Different approaches to the classification of parts of speech.

Different approaches to the classification of parts of speech. Their advantages and disadvantages. Diagnostic criteria for the classification of parts of speech (logical-semantic, morphological, functional). Notional and formal parts of speech.

5. The problem of parts of the sentence. Main and secondary parts of the sentence.

The notion of parts of the sentence (traditional and linguistic approach). The problem of the hierarchy of parts of the sentence; the subject; the predicate; the object; the adverbial modifier; the attribute; extensions and other secondary parts of the sentence.

6. Syntagmatic relationships between the words in the sentence: predicative, coordinate, subordinate. Fundamentals of the (IC) method.

Coordinate type of syntagmatic relationships of words in the sentence. Subordinate relationships: a) attributive subordinate relationships; combinability of nouns as headwords in attributive word-combinations; b) objective subordinate relationships; c) adverbial subordinate relationships. Predicative  relationships (primary and secondary predication).

7. The definition of the verb as a part of speech. The notion of grammatical category. The grammatical categories of Tense and Aspect.

The definition of the verb as a part of speech, the grammatical category of Tense: time and tense; the problem of Future Tense; oppositions of tense forms. The grammatical category of Aspect. Oppositions: continuous/non-continuous; perfect/non-perfect forms.

Теоретическая грамматика

1.   Вербоцентрическая концепция предложения и теория валентности.

2.      Коммуникативные типы предложений. Актуальное членение предложения и его базовые понятия: тема, рема.

3.      Понятие оппозиции. Типы оппозиций. Нейтрализация оппозиций.

4. Проблема частей речи в современном английском языке.
5. Проблема членов предложения. Главные и второстепенные члены предложения.
6. Основы анализа по непосредственно составляющим (НС). Синтагматические связи между словами в предложении: сочинительная, подчинительная, предикативная.
7. Глагол: грамматические категории времени и вида.

            1. Вербоцентрическая концепция предложения и теория валентности.

Вербоцентрическая концепция и теория валентности. Семантическая и синтаксическая структура предложения. Понятие актанта. Типы актантов. Семантическое согласование предиката с его актантами. Типы предикатов. Валентностно-актантная схема предложения. Общие принципы построения парадигмы предложений, организованных одним предикатом.

            2. Коммуникативные типы предложений и актуальное членение предложения.

Понятие актуального членения предложения. Тема и рема как базовые понятия актуального членеия. Актуальное чтение предложения и грамматическое членение предложения. Понятие двойной и осложненной темы. Понятие двойной и осложненной ремы. Средства выражения актуального членения (грамматические, лексические, интонационно-просодические, графические). Коммуникативные типы предложений и их классификация .

            3. Понятие оппозиции. Типы оппозиций.

Определение оппозиции. Типы оппозиций: привативная (сильный и слабый, маркированный и немаркированный члены оппозиции) и случаи нейтрализации привативной оппозиции. Градуальная  и эквиполентная оппозиции. 

            4. Проблема частей речи в современном английском языке.

Определение «части речи». Диагностические критерии выделения частей речи (логико-семантический, морфологический, функциональный). Различные классификации частей речи. Понятие знаменательных и служебных частей речи.

            5. Проблема членов предложения. Главные и второстепенные члены предложения.

Понятие «члены предложения» с точки зрения традиционного и лингвистического подходов. Проблема иерархии членов предложения; подлежащие; сказуемое; дополнение; обстоятельство; определение; расширители, коннекторы и другие второстепенные члены предложения.

            6. Основы анализа по непосредственно составляющим (НС).

Синтагматические связи между словами в предложении: сочинительная, подчинительная, предикативная. Основные принципы анализа по НС. Типы синтаксических связей слов в предложении: предикативная (первичная и вторичная предикация), сочинительная, подчинительная (атрибутивная, объектная, адвербальная). Сочетаемость существительных как главных слов в составе атрибутивных словосочетаний.

            7. Глагол: грамматические категории времени и вида.

Определение глагола как части речи. Понятие грамматической категории. Грамматическая категория времени. Разграничение понятий time и tense. Проблема будущего времени в английской грамматике. Абсолютные и относительные времена. Грамматическая категория вида. Оппозиции категории вида: длительные/недлительные, перфектные/неперфектные формы.

Литература:

1. Blokh, M. Y. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. / M. Y. Blokh. – М.–«Высшая школа», 1983 – 383 р.
2. Ilysh, B. The structure of Modern English./ B Ilysh - Л., 1971 – 365 р.
3. The Issules in English Philology (Study Manual)/ - Irkutsk: ISLU, 2012 – 340 p.
4. Иванова, И. П., Бурлакова В. В., Почепцов Г. Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка/ И. П. Иванова, В. В. Бурлакова, Г. Г Почепцов – Л.: ЛГУ, 1984. –285 с.
5. Современный английский язык (слово и предложение). (Отв. Редактор Л. М. Ковалева) / отв. редактор проф. Л.М.Ковалева – Иркутск, 1997 – 409с.

 

 

History of the English Language

1. The development of the verb system in the English Language.
2. Quantitative and qualitative changes of vowels in Middle English.
3. English vocabulary development: Latin, Germanic, Scandinavian and French substrata.

1. The main morphological changes in the verb system in the English Language.

The morphological types of verbs. Verbal categories. The strong verbs classes in Old English and Middle English. The weak verbs classes in Old English and Middle English. Preterite-Present, suppletive and anomalous verbs in Old English. Interchange of strong and weak verbs in Middle English. Development of weak verbs in Middle English. Development of preterite-present, suppletive and anomalous verbs in Middle English.

2. Quantitative and qualitative changes of vowels in Middle English.

The system of vowel phonemes in Middle English. Shortening and lengthening of vowels. Monophthongization of Old English diphthongs. The rise of new diphthongs. Levelling of the unstressed vowels. The phonological essence of quantitative changes. The Great Vowel Shift.

3. English vocabulary development: Latin, Germanic, Scandinavian and French substrata.

Stylistic stratification of the Modern English vocabulary. Three layers of Latin borrowings. Words of Germanic origin in the Modern English vocabulary. Germanic derivational affixes in Modern English. Scandinavian substratum in the Modern English vocabulary. French orthography in the English language. French borrowing in the Middle English vocabulary. Assimilation of the French loan words. French derivational affixes in Modern English.

История английского языка

1. Основные морфологические изменения в системе глагола в английском языке.
2. Количественные и качественные изменения гласных в среднеанглийский период.
3. Развитие лексической системы английского языка: латинский, германский, скандинавский и французский субстраты

1. Основные морфологические изменения в системе глагола в английском языке.

Морфологические типы глаголов. Глагольные категории. Сильные глаголы в древнеанглийском и среднеанглийском периодах. Слабые глаголы в древнеанглийском и среднеанглийском периодах. Изменение парадигмы сильных и слабых глаголов в среднеанглийский период. Развитие претерито-презентных, аномальных и супплетивных глаголов в среднеанглийский период.

2. Количественные и качественные изменения гласных в среднеанглийский период.

Система вокализма в среднеанглийский период. Сокращение и удлинение гласных. Монофтонгизация древнеанглийских дифтонгов. Возникновение новых дифтонгов. Фонологическая сущность количественных изменений гласных. Великий сдвиг гласных.

3. Развитие лексической системы английского языка: латинский, германский, скандинавский и французский субстраты.

Стилистическая стратификация словарного состава современного английского языка. Заимствования из латинского языка. Исконно германские слова в лексической подсистеме современного английского языка. Германские деривационные аффиксы в современном английском языке. Скандинавские заимствования в современном английском языке. Особенности лингвистической ситуации в Англии после Нормандского завоевания. Французские заимствования в среднеанглийский период. Ассимиляция французских заимствований. Французские деривационные аффиксы в английском языке.

Литература:

1.    Ilyish, B.A. History of the English Language [Text] / B.A.Ilysh. – L.: “Prosvescheniye”, 1973. – 351 p.

2.    Rastorgueva, T.A. A History of English [Text] / T.A. Rastorgueva – M.: “Vyssaya skola”, 1983. – 350 с.

3.    Аракин, В. В. История английского языка [Текст]: Учеб. Пособие для студентов педагогических институтов / В.В.Аракин. – М.: Просвещение, 1985.– 254 с.

4.    Ivanova I. History of the English Language in Tables [Text] / I. Ivanova, Yu. Karypkina – Irkutsk: ISLU, 2012. – 127 p.

5.    Иванова, И.П. История английского языка. Учебник. Хрестоматия. Словарь [Текст] / И.П.Иванова, Л.П. Чахоян, Т.М. Беляева.  – СПб.: Лань, 1998. – 319 с. с ил.

№1

1. Место лексикологии в системе других лингвистических дисциплин. Разделы и отрасли лексикологии

“Lexicology” is of Greek origin (“lexis” – word, “logos” – science).

• is a branch of linguistic
• deals with words, word-groups, phraseological units and morhemes.
• the main task: to study and to describe the vocabulary (its origin, development and current use)

Ø  General (is a part of general linguistics; studies the vocabulary without dealing with specific features of the language)

Ø  Special (is the lexicology of a particular language; studies the vocabulary of a particular language):

·         Descriptive (studies the vocabulary of a language at a given time; Modern English Lexicology)

·         Historical (deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language; English Historical Lexicology)

Lexicology consists of several parts:

-          Lexicography

-          Semantics

-          Phraseology

1. Lexicology and Phonetics

·     Phonetics studies the phonemes and the phonemes build the words (fat – cat)

·     Phonetics deals with stress and stress can change the word (import (n,v))

2. Lexicology and Stylistics

They have similar problems to study:

·     meaning;

·     connotations;

·     synonymy;

·     functional differentiation of vocabulary, etc.

Stylistics deals with these problems to study style, imagery etc.

3. Lexicology and Grammar

·         words can belong to different parts of speech: an exercise – to exercise

·         a form that originally expressed grammatical meaning, for example, the plural of nouns, can become a basis for a new grammatically conditioned lexical meaning (arm – arms (weapon))

·         one and the same word may in some of its meanings function as a notional word, while in others it may be a form word (do, have…)

·         all grammatical meanings have a lexical counterpart that expresses the same concept (tomorrow, future, by and by = shall, will)

2. Способы образования новых слов. Сокращение. Аббревиация.

Word-building

·     processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

·     provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Types:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Composition
4. Shortening (Contraction)
5. Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia)
6. Reduplication
7. Back-formation (reversion)
8. Sound-interchange
9. Stress-interchange
10. Blends

Shortening (Contraction)

·         new way of word-building;

·         a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English;

·         these words are found not only among formal words but also among colloquialisms and slang;

·         both types of shortenings are characteristic of informal speech in general and of uncultivated speech particularly;

·         sometimes shortenings can be explained by their brevity  

·         but it takes the speakers some time to clarify the misunderstanding.

Shortening:

1. Shortening - to make a new word from a syllable (rarer, two) of the original word (exam = examination)
2. Abbreviation - to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group (U.N.O.  =  the United Nations Organization)

* okay - originally this initial shortening was spelt O.K. = all correct.

The purely oral manner in which sounds were recorded for letters resulted in O.K. whereas it should have been  AC. or aysee

Shortening:

1.   aphaeresis/apheresis/aphesis - an initial clipping (phone = telephone)

2.   apocope - a final clipping (vac = vacation)

3.   syncope - a medial clipping (hols = holidays)

4.   fore-and-aft  clipping - an initial and final clipping (fridge = refrigerator)

Informal shortenings

·         movie (from moving-picture),

·         gent (from gentleman),

·         specs (from spectacles),

·         circs (from circumstances, e. g. under the circs),

·         O. Y. (a written acknowledgement of debt, made from I owe you),

·         lib (from liberty, as in May I take the lib of saying something to you?).

Undergraduates' informal speech abounds in words of the type:

·         lab, prof, vac, hol, co-ed (a girl student at a coeducational school or college).

№2

1. Проблема определения слова.

Many scholars have attempted to define the word as a linguistic phenomenon. None of the definitions can be considered totally satisfactory. Despite the achievements of science, essential aspects of the nature of the word escape us.

We don’t know much about:

·         the origin of language and the origin of words

·         the mechanism by which a speaker's mental process is converted into sound groups called “words”

·         the process where a listener's brain converts the acoustic phenomena into concepts and ideas

·         the nature of relations between the word and the referent (object, quality, action denoted by the word)

We know that the word:

·         is a unit of communication

·         can be perceived as the total of the sounds which comprise it

·         viewed structurally, possesses several characteristics

·         The modern approach is based on distinguishing between the external (morphological (prefixes, root, suffixes)) and the internal (semantic) structures of the word.

The word possesses both external (formal) and semantic unity.

*Blackbird (word) – a single grammatical framing (blackbirds); conveys only one concept (the type).

*Black bird (word-group) – each constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own (the blackest birds); each of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept (a creature; a colour).

• in speech words can be used in different grammatical forms in which their interrelations are realised (susceptibility to grammatical employment)

Conclusion: the word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterised by formal and semantic unity.

2. Способы образования новых слов. Звукоподражание. Редупликация. Дезаффиксация.

Word-building

·     processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

·     provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Types:

1.       Affixation

2.       Conversion

3.       Composition

4.       Shortening (Contraction)

5.       Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia)

6.       Reduplication

7.       Back-formation (reversion)

8.       Sound-interchange

9.       Stress-interchange

10.   Blends

Sound-Imitation (onomatopoeia, echoism) – words are made by imitating different kinds of sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects. Sounds produced by the same kind of animal are frequently represented by different sound groups in different languages:

·         in E. ducks quack and frogs croak;  in R. крякать said about ducks and квакать said about frogs

·         the E. cock cries cock-a-doodle-doo; the R. ку-ка-ре-ку

Some names of animals, birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation: crow, cuckoo, cricket.

There’s also sound-imitation words reproducing sounds made by modern machinery (engine has to ding and fizz and spit and pant…)

Reduplication – new words are made by doubling a stem

·         without any phonetic changes (bye-bye)

·         with a variation (ping-pong) – gradational reduplication

This type is greatly facilitated in Modern E. by the vast number of monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, most words represent informal groups: colloquialisms, slang (walkie-talkie (“a portable radio”)).

Back-formation (reversion). The earliest examples are:

·         to beg <– beggar,

·         to burgle <– burglar.

In the case of the verbs to beg, to burgle the process was reversed: instead of a noun made from a verb by affixation (as in painter from to paint), a verb was produced from a noun by subtraction.

Later examples are:

• to baby-sit <– baby-sitter,
• to force-land <– forced landing.

№3

1. Системные отношения между лексическими единицами словарного состава языка.

Lexicology studies words as a system. Groups of words, which make a system, can be different in syntagmatic and paradigmatic levels.

·         Syntagmatic – relationship with other words in connected speech.

The semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts.

·          Paradigmatic – with other words in the vocabulary system.

The word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system. A word may be studied in comparison with other:

·         of similar meaning (work, n. – labour, n.; to refuse, v. – to reject v. – to decline, v)

·         of opposite meaning (busy, adj. – idle, adj.; to accept, v – to reject, v)

·         of different stylistic characteristics (man, n – chap, n  – guy, n)

Consequently, the main problems of paradigmatic studies are synonymy, antonymy, functional styles.

2. Семасиология. Референтный и функциональный подходы

Semasiology studies the meaning (there is no universally accepted

definition of meaning). The meaning can be in:

·         words/groups of words

·         morphemes

·         sentences

·         texts

The main objects of semasiological study are: semantic development of words, its classification, distinctive features and types of lexical meaning, polysemy, semantic structure of word, synonyms, antonyms.

Meaning can be studied from:

1.       the referential approach

seeks to formulate the essence of meaning  by establishing  the interdependence  between words and  the things or concepts they denote

The best known referential model of meaning is "basic triangle":

1) the sound form of the linguistic sign (sign or symbol);

2) the concept underlying this sound form (thought or reference; abstract, reflect the features of the objects; meanings are different in different languages. Words expressing identical concepts may have different meanings).

3) the actual referent (the part of reality to which the sign refers (thing meant).

Meaning is not to be identified with any of the three points of the triangle.

The connection between this particular sound-cluster and the meaning of the word is conventional. [kot] – кот, cot (кроватка).

2.       the functional approach

studies the functions  of a word in speech  and is less concerned  with what meaning is  than with  how it works. The meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic-units and not through its relation to either concept or referent.

Thus, the meaning of the 2 words “move and movement” is different because they function in speech differently.

№4

1. Лексикография. Типы словарей.

Lexicography is a part of lexicology, а science about compiling dictionaries. The aim of lexicography is the semantic, formal, and functional description of all individual words.

Dictionaries:

I classification:

1. encyclopedic – definitions, general inf about events, things, notions

2. linguistic – word-list dictionaries, linguistic information: pronunciation, spelling, grammar information, translation

Linguistic:

-           general – words of the language without any restrictions

-           restricted = special(-ized) – with some limits (ex. phraseological)

II classification:

Unilingual		Bilingual or multilingual
General	Explanatory dictionaries irrespective of their bulk	English-Russian, Russian-English and multilingual dictionaries
	Etymological, frequency, phonetical, rhyming and thesaurus type dictionaries		Concentrated on one of the distinctive features of the word
Special	Glossaries of scientific and other special terms; concordances Dictionaries of abbreviations, antonyms, borrowings, new words, proverbs, synonyms, surnames, toponyms	Dictionaries of scientific and other special terms Dictionaries of abbreviations, phraseology, proverbs, synonyms
	Dictionaries of American English, dialect and slang dictionaries	Dictionaries of Old English and Middle English with explanations in Modern English

2. Денотативное и коннотативное значение слова. Типы коннотативного значения.

The denotative meaning classifies our experience and names for the listener some objects spoken about. Fulfilling the significative and the communicative functions of the word it is present in every word and may be regarded as the central factor in the functioning of language.

The expressive function of the language with its orientation towards the speaker’s feelings, and the pragmatic function dealing with the effect of words upon listeners are rendered in connotations. Unlike the denotative meaning, connotations are optional.

The description of the denotative meaning is a difficult task because there is no clear-cut demarcation line between the semantic features, strictly necessary for each definition, and those that are optional. A CAT in Hornby: “a small fur-covered animal often kept as a pet in the house”. Longman: a cat is “a small animal with soft fur and sharp teeth and claws, often kept as a pet, or in buildings to catch mice”.

Types of connotations:

·         stylistic (horse – neutral, steed – poetic, nag – slang, gee-gee – baby language; to be off, to clear out (coll.), to beat it, to hoof it, to take the air (sl.), to depart, to retire, to withdraw (formal))

·         emotional or affective – the nature of the emotion they imply (to beseech means 'to ask eagerly and also anxiously')

·         evaluative – conveys the speaker's attitude (well-known – famous – notorious – celebrated, the adjective notorious bears a negative evaluative connotation and celebrated a positive one)

·         of degree / intensity (to like – to admire – to love – to adore – to worship)

·         of duration (to stare – to glare – to gaze – to glance; to flash (brief) – to blaze (lasting)

·         causative (to blush, to render: people mostly blush from modesty, shame or embarrassment, but usually redden from anger or indignation)

·         of manner (to stroll – to stride – to trot – to pace – to swagger – to stagger – to stumble all denote different ways and types of walking)

·         of attendant / preventing circumstances (to peep – at through a hole, opening, a curtain; to peer – at in darkness, through the fog)

·         of attendant features (each describes a special type of human beauty: beautiful – classical features, handsome – a tall stature, pretty – small delicate features)

№5

1. Метод трансформации, непосредственных составляющих, статистический

• Statistical analysis – the one of the major branches of linguistics.

Statistical approach proved essential in the selection of vocabulary items of a foreign language for teaching purposes. Very few people know more than 10% of the words in their mother tongue. Out of approximately 500 000 words listed in Oxford English dictionary the active vocabulary of an educated Englishman comprises no more than 30 000 words of these 4 000 - 5 000 are presumed to be useful for daily needs. It is known that comparatively small group of words makes up the bulk of any text. It was found that approximately 1300 – 1500 most frequent words make up 85% of all words occurring in the text e. g. if we take the word “room” we can find some meanings of the word: 1) “room”- denoting “space” as in “take less room, not enough room to do smth”; 2) part of a house as in “sitting-room” ; 3) used in plural = lodgings as in “to get rooms”. Statistical analysis shows that most frequently the word is used in its second meaning – 83% of all occurrences of the word in different texts, 12% of all takes its first meaning – “space”, only 2% takes the third meaning of the word.

• The method of immediate constituents – an attempt to determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another.

It was discovered that combinations of units are usually structured into hierarchial sets of binary constructions .e. g. in the word-group “a black dress in severe style“ we do not relate the indefinite article “a” to adjective “black”, “black” to “dress”, “dress” to “in”, “in” to “severe”, “severe” to “style”. We set up a structure which may be represented as “a black dress” “in severe style”. Thus, the fundamental aim of immediate constituents analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences, these maximally independent sequences are called immediate constituents. The further segmentation of immediate constituents results in ultimate constituents - two-facet units that cannot be segmented into smaller units having both sound-form and meaning: a / white / bag / in / elegant / style, which means that further segmentation is impossible for no meaning can be found e. g. the ultimate constituents of the phrase given are “a”, ”black”, “dress”, “ in”, “severe”, “style”.

• Transformational analysis may be defined as repatterning (representing, reorganization ) of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns . dogfight (n+n) / dogcart (n+n), ‘a kind of fight’ / ‘a kind of cart’ (meanings look similar), ‘a fight between dogs’ / ‘a cart drawn by dogs’ (not ‘a cart between dogs’ ).

As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic, transformational procedures are of help not only in the analysis of semantic sameness/difference of the lexical units, but also in the analysis of the factors that account for their polysemy. Word-groups of identical distributional structure when re-patterned show that the semantic relations between words consequently the meaning may be different .e. g. A pattern “possessive pronoun”+”noun” (his car, his failure, his arrest, his kindness). According to transformational analysis the meaning of each word-group may be represented as: he has a car, he failed, he was arrested, he is kind. In each of the cases different meaning is revealed: possession, action , passive action , quality.

2. Средства создания образности.

All they serve to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations. In fact we deal with the intended substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things. Each type of intended substitution results in a stylistic device called also a trope.

A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the words "like", "as", or "than".(Curley was flopping like a fish on a line)

• METAPHOR is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Metaphor can be based on different types of similarity:

a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage)

b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page)

c) similarity of function, behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting)

d) similarity of colour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut etc.

In some cases we have a complex similarity. A special type of metaphor is when Proper names become common nouns, e.g. a Don Juan - a lover of many women etc.

• METONYMY is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy:

a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object , e.g. a glass

b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House - members of Parliament,

c) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin

d) the name of some person may become a common noun, e.g. sandwich» was named after Lord Sandwich.

e) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. «watt» , «om», «rentgen» etc

f) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics)

• HYPERBOLE is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration, e.g. «to hate» (doing something), (not to see somebody) «for ages».

Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. «to make a mountain out of a molehill», «to split hairs» etc.

• LITOTE is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or vica versa, e.g. not bad, no coward etc.
• ALLEGORY

a)The representation of abstract ideas or principles by characters, figures, or events in narrative, dramatic, or pictorial form

b) a story, picture, or play employing such representation. John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress and Herman Melville's Moby Dick are allegories.

• PERSONIFICATION a description of an object as being a living person or animal as in: "The sun shone brightly down on me as if she were shining for me alone".
• EPITHET is a descriptive word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a person or thing, which has become a fixed formula. (The charming prince)
• OXYMORON combines normally contradicting terms.

They appear in a variety of contexts (extremely average).

№6

1. Сопоставительный метод, дистрибутивный, компонентного анализа

• Contrastive Analysis = detained comparison of the structure of a native and a target language

Сan be carried out at the three linguistic levels:

- phonology

- grammar 

- lexis vocabulary

This method helps to solve interference. It deals with problem pairs (head-голова but голова сахара-a loaf of sugar)

• Comparative analysis - languages are compared in order to trace the phylogenic relationship

Aim = to establish family relationship and to find out their position, classification.

• Distributional Analysis - the position which lexical units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech.

A certain component of the word-meaning is described when the word is identified distributionally. e.g. The boy — home the missing word is easily identified as a verb — The boy went, came, ran, home. We see that the component of meaning that is distributionally identified is actually the part-of-speech meaning but not the individual lexical meaning of the word under analysis.

The sameness / difference in distribution is indicative of sameness / difference in part-of-speech meaning. Words have different lexical meanings in different distributional patterns (to treat smb well-to act or behave well; to treat smb to ice-cream-to supply with food).

• Componential Analysis - the smallest units of meanings are semantic markers, semantic features, distinguishers which are present also in the lexical meaning of other words and distinguishers (woman-human-female-adult), (girl-human-female-young).

Human, female-semantic markers, young-semantic distinguishers.

It is useful in the analysis of hyponimic groups in the investigation in the semantic structure of synonyms.

2. Многозначность (полисемия) слов. Основное и переносное значение.

«Polysemy» – «plurality of meanings», exists only in the language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.

There are two processes of the semantic development of a word:

• Radiation

Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primmary meaning.  E.g. «face» – the primary meaning denotes «the front part of the human head». Front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card were formed.

• Concatenation - secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain.

It is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one.

E.g. in the word «crust» the primary meaning «hard outer part of bread» developed a secondary meaning «hard part of anything /a pie, a cake/», then the meaning «harder layer over soft snow» was developed, then «a sullen gloomy person», then «impudence» were developed. Here the last meanings have nothing to do with the primary ones. In such cases homonyms appear in the language = the split of polysemy.

№7

1. Нейтральная и стилистически маркированная лексика

Neutral words (basic vocabulary) - form the bulk of the English vocabulary and are used in both literary and colloquial language. They are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Don’t have a special stylistic colouring and are devoid of emotional meaning => can be used in any language style, in all kinds of situations (formal, informal), every day and everywhere.

They show a greater stability in comparison with words of the other strata.  Basic vocabulary can be recognized by entire lack of other connotations. Meanings are broad, general (house, bread, summer).

“walk” – basic word

“to stroll”, “to stride”, “to trot”, “to stagger” - the synonyms

The main opposition lies between words of literary stylistic layer (words of Standard English) and those of non-literary stylistic layer (words of Sub-Standard English).

Words of literary stylistic layer are divided into:

• literary colloquial - denoting everyday concepts, they constitute the core of the wordstock (see, come, home, night, etc.)
• literary-bookish - Terms, Poeticisms, Foreign.

Words of non-literary stylistic layer (Sub-standard English) include: Colloquialisms,Slangisms,Professionalisms,Vulgarisms,Regional dialectisms, jargonisms, historisms, historicism, archaic words, occasionalisms, neologisms.

Neutral words and stylistically marked strata of the vocabulary do not exist independently but are closely interrelated. Most stylistically marked words have their neutral counterparts in the basic vocabulary

2. Семантическая структура многозначного слова. Понятие «лексико-семантический вариант» (ЛСВ).

Polysemy is characteristic of most words in many languages.

All the lexical and lexico-grammatical variants of a word taken together form its semantic structure or semantic paradigm

3 lexico-grammatical variants of the word “youth” may be distinguished:

- an abstract uncountable noun, as in ‘the friends of one’s youth’ (the state of being young, and the other the time of being young)

because they are expressed by the same sound complex and are interrelated in meaning as they all contain the semantic component ‘young’ and can be explained by means of one another

- a countable personal noun ‘a young man’

- a collective noun ‘young men and women’ having only one form.

Other oppositions are:

- concrete/abstract

- main/ primary

- secondary/central and so on.

Every meaning in language and every difference in meaning is signalled either by the form of the word itself or by context.

№8

1. Стилистически маркированная лексика. Разговорная лексика

Words differ not only in their emotive charge but also in their stylistic reference. Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into:

·         literary – the greater part are words of general use, possessing no specific stylistic reference and known as neutral words.

·         neutral – we can distinguish two major subgroups — standard colloquial words and literary or bookish words. This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost identical in their denotational meaning (‘parent — father — dad’). In comparison with the word father which is stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as bookish. The stylistic reference of standard colloquial words is clearly observed when we compare them with their neutral synonyms, e.g. chum — friend, rot — nonsense, etc. This is also true of literary or bookish words, such as, e.g., to presume (cf. to suppose), to anticipate (cf. to expect) and others.

·         colloquial layers:

1) Common colloquial words.

2) Slang, i.e. words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English, e.g. governor for ‘father’, missus for ‘wife’, a gag for ‘a joke’, dotty for ‘insane’.

3) Professionalisms, i.e. words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation, such as, e.g., lab for ‘laboratory’, hypo for ‘hypodermic syringe’, a buster for ‘a bomb’, etc.

4) Jargonisms, i.e. words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing a secret and cryptic character, e.g. a sucker — ‘a person who is easily deceived’, a squiffer — ‘a concertina’.

5) Vulgarisms – coarse words, aren’t generally used in public (hell, damn)

6) Dialectical words, e.g. lass, kirk, etc.

7) Colloquial coinages, e.g. newspaperdom, allrightnik, etc.

2. Понятие «сема». Типы сем.

A seme is the smallest unit of a meaning, refers to a single characteristic of a sememe, distinguished on the basis of oppositions by method of componential analysis. A seme is not expressed in a word in any material unit but it’s revealed & singled out through interrelations of the word with other words on a paradigmatic & syntagmatic levels. The term was introduced in the 1930s and developed in the 1960s. It is the result produced when determining the minimal elements of meaning, which enables one to describe words multlingually. Semes can be:

1)  Semantic markers are semes which are identical, exist in all the words

2)  Semantic distinguishers differentiate two or more meanings

3)   Potential semes appear in the context

Ex. Piglet [animal – semantic marker] + [non-adult - semantic distinguisher] [male or female – potential semes]

Sow [animal – semantic marker] + [adult – semantic distinguisher] + [female – semantic distinguisher]

№9

1. Книжные слова. Основные характеристики и группы.

Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely:

1) terms or scientific words such as, e g., renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.;

2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g., whilome — ‘formerly’, aught — ‘anything’, ere — ‘before’, albeit — ‘although’, fare — ‘walk’, etc., tarry — ‘remain’, nay — ‘no’;

3) barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e.g., bon mot — ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc.

2. Изменение значений. Причины. Расширение и сужение значения.

Change of meaning (the old meaning is completely replaced by the new one): meat (OE) = "food" ; meat (ModE) = "flesh of animals used as food"

            Development of meaning (when a new meaning and the one on the basis of which it is formed coexist in the semantic structure of the word) = transference ("transference of meaning" is a serious mistake)
Causes of development of meaning:
1. Historical (extra-linguistic) -> different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in culture, knowledge, technology, arts -> newly created objects, concepts and phenomena must have names:
- applying some old word to a new object or notion
- borrowing
- word-building
2. Linguistic –> influence of other words
Types of transference:
1) linguistic metonymy (transference Based on Contiguity)
- material – article made from it
- part-whole
- receptacle - content
- symbol – thing symbolized
2) linguistic metaphor (transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity))
- size
- shape
- colour
- association
Eye ="hole in the end of a needle" ; nut, onion = head
Process of transference (на примере “a girl”)
1. Specialisation  (in Mid.E)
"a small child of either sex“ = "a small child of the female sex“ (+the process of transference based on contiguity)
2. Generalisation
«a female child» = «a young unmarried woman»
«a young unmarried woman» = «any young woman»
«any young woman» = «woman»(colloquial)

№10

1. «термин». Характеристики. Способы образования терминов

Terms:

• any word used to name a notion of some special field of knowledge

• greatest part of vocabulary

• ideal term should be monosemantic

• only meaning possible – denotational free meaning

• Terminology is always a system.

Origin of terms:

- formation with the help of clipping, abbreviation (teletext, extremely low frequency → ELF)

- the use of combining form from Latin and Greek (microphone)

- borrowing from another terminological system within the same language

- word formation

- borrowing from other languages (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche)

The everyday English vocabulary, especially the part of a high index of frequency and polysemy, constitutes a constant source for the creation of new terms. Due to the expansion of popular interest in the achievements of science and technology new terms appear more and more frequently in newspapers and popular magazines and even in fiction. The development of terminology is the most complete reflection of the history of science, culture and industry.

2. Лексическая омонимия. Причины возникновения омонимии

             Homonyms are words identical in sound-form or in written form but different in meaning

Classification:

• Homographs (graphic form) tear n — tear v

• homophones (sound-form) sea n / see v

• Perfect homonyms (meaning) case n — ’something that has happened’- case n — ‘a box, a container’

According to Smirnizkii perfect homonyms (lexical) can be:

1) Full - represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm (match, n – матч; match, n – спичка)

2) Partial

a. simple lexico-grammatical - belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.); lay, v (to lie))

b. complex lexico-grammatical - different categories of parts of speech and

have one identical form (rose, n; rose, v (to rise))

c. lexical - the same category of part of speech and are identical only in their

corresponding forms (to can, v; can, v (modal))

Sources of homonymy:

• diverging meaning development of a polysemantic word -> different meanings of the same word move so far away from each other that they come to be regarded as two separate units

ME. Flour = ‘the flower’ and ‘the finest part of wheat’, затем разошлось на 2 самостоятельных flower и flour

• converging sound development of 2 or more different words -> the coincidence of 2 or more words, were phonetically distinct at an earlier date

- MnE. I [ai] and eye [ai] (I от OE. Ic, eye от OE. eаzе)

- the verb/the noun lexico-grammatical homonyms MnE. love — (to) love

OE. lufu — lufian

№11

1. Стилистически маркированная лексика. Неологизмы и окказиональные

Stylistically neutral – basic vocabulary, most of the English words. Stylistically marked words: formal and informal, belong to particular styles.

Neologism is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language, but is found in a dictionary.

They appear through:

- combining existing words (compound noun and adjective)

- giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes

- abbreviation or acronym

- intentionally rhyming with existing words

- playing with sounds

Can become popular

• by way of mass media

• the Internet

• word of mouth, including academic discourse

When a word or phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism.

Occasionalism (nonce word)

- is used in a particular situation

- is invented by an author for particular occasions

- appear mainly through the combination of an existing word with a familiar prefix or suffix (balconyfull)

- can remain in a language due to its beauty or simplicity of meaning.

- can’t be found in dictionary

2. Полисемия и омонимия. Трудности разграничения.

Criteria to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy:

1) semantic criterion (foot of the man & foot of the mountain (connection-polysemy)) - the differentiation between related and unrelated meanings ! can`t be applied to the lexico-grammatical homonyms (conversives) !

2) distribution (paper — (to) paper - article + paper + verb; (to) paper can never be found in identical distribution) - lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms, but it often fails in cases of lexical homonymy, not differentiated by means of spelling

3) spelling (flower – flour)

№12

1. Стилистически маркированная лексика. Архаизмы, историзмы.

Stylistically neutral – basic vocabulary, most of the English words

Stylistically marked words: formal and informal, belong to particular styles

Archaic words – are not used in present day speech.

Historisms - words denoting objects and phenomena which are things of the past and no longer exist.

Reasons to disappear:

1) modern synonyms, usually foreign => archaic words proper (main => ocean, to deem => to consider)

2) a subject has disappeared (hauberk – кольчуга, yeoman – крестьянин (12 век))

Such words can be sometimes found in:

• poetry

• Law

• science

• Technology

• Geography

• ritual writing and speech

2. Омонимия. Типы омонимов.

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound of spelling or both in sound and spelling. Homonyms can appear in the language as a result of the split of polysemy and also as a result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical.

Homonyms appear as a result of:

1.  The phonetic convergence of 2 words of different pronunciation & meaning

Race → a) people derives from Old Norwegian “ras”

              b) running, from French “race”

2.   The semantic divergence or loss of semantic bond between 2 words polysemantically related before

Pupil → a) scholar

              b) apple of an eye (зрачок)

Types:

•           Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning

tear n [tɪə] — ‘a drop of water that comes from the eye’

tear v [tɛə] — ‘to pull apart by force’

•           Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and in meaning

Sea – see

Son – sun

•           Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning

Case n — ’something that has happened’

Case n — ‘a box, a container’

Full homonyms represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm: match, n – матч, match, n – спичка

Partial homonyms:

1)         simple lexico-grammatical belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.) - lay, v (to lie))

2)         complex lexico-grammatical different categories of parts of speech and have one identical form (rose, n-  rose, v (to rise))

3)         lexical the same category of part of speech and are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v - can, v (modal))

№13

1. Основной словарный фонд языка, его особенности.

English words can be subdivided into two main sets:

• native words
• borrowed words.

Native words belong to the original English word stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. Though they constitute only 30% of the English vocabulary, they are the most frequent used words.  Native words are subdivided into two large groups (по Дубeнец): Indo-European and Common Germanic. The oldest layer of words in English is words from Indo-European language. There are several semantic groups of them:

•           words denoting kinship: father (Vater, pater), mother (Mutter, mater), son (Sohn), daughter (Tocher)

•           words denoting important objects and phenomena of nature: the sun (die Sohne), water (Wasser)

•           names of animals and birds: cat (Katze), goose (Gans), wolf (Wolf)

•           names of parts of human body: heart (Herz)

•           often used words: sit(sitzen), stand (stehen)

•           numerals: two(zwei), three (drei)

A larger group of native vocabulary is Common Germanic words (German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic). Nouns: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, life, shoe.

Verbs: bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn, make, meet.

Adj: broad, dead, deaf, deep.  

Native words have a great word-building capacity, form a lot of phraseological units, they are mostly polysemantic.

2. Синонимия. Критерии синонимии.

Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form but identical or similar in meaning. This definition has been criticized on many points.

1.       It seems impossible to speak of identical or similar of words as this part of the definition cannot be applied to polysemantic words. It is incredible that polysemantic words could be synonymous in all their meanings. The verb “look” is usually treated as a synonym of “see”, “watch”, “observe” etc, but in another of its meanings it is not synonymous with this group of words but rather with the verbs “seem”, “appear” (ex. “to look at somebody” and “to look pale”). The number of synonymic sets of a polysemantic word tends as a rule to be equal to the number of individual meanings the word possesses.

2.       It seems impossible to speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning as a whole as it is only the denotational component that may be described as identical or similar. We must take into consideration the connotational meaning of the word. Ex. to look (denotation): to stare - to look steadily, lastingly, in surprise, curiosity (connotations);

To look: to glare – to look steadily, lastingly, in anger, rage, fury

3.       Identity of meaning is very rare even among monosemantic words. In fact, cases of complete synonymy are very few and are, as a rule, in technical vocabulary (quinquagenarian – a middle-aged person)

4.       The criterion of interchangeability or substitution in linguistic contexts. Synonyms are words which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest alteration in the denotational or connotational meaning. The contextual approach invites criticism for many reasons. Words interchangeable in any given context are very rare. Words synonymous in lexical contexts may display no synonimity in others. Thus a more acceptable definition of synonyms seems to be the following: synonyms are words different in their sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning and interchangeable at least in some context.

Ex.: He glared at her (He looked at her angrily).

He gazed at her (He looked at her steadily and attentively; probably with admiration or interest).

He glanced at her (He looked at her briefly and turned away).

He peered at her (He tried to see her better, but something prevented: darkness, fog, weak eyesight).

These few simple examples show that each of the synonyms creates an entirely new situation which so sharply differs from the rest that any attempt at "interchanging" anything can only destroy the utterance devoiding it of any sense at all.

№14

1. Латинские и греческие заимствования, из роль в пополнении словарного состава английского языка.

The first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabulary. The English language, more than any other modern language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary. But the adoption of foreign words must not be understood as mere quantitative change. Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic groups.

Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.

Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc.

Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography). The word car, e.g., ultimately goes back to Latin carrus which meant ‘a four-wheeled wagon’

Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific -terminology. It should be noted that many terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages. The present-day English vocabulary, especially its terminological layers, is constantly enriched by words made up of morphemes of Latin and Greek origin such as words with the morphemes -tron used chiefly in the field of electronics, e.g. mesotron, cyclotron, etc.; tele-, e.g. telecast, telelecture, telediagnosis, -in, e.g. protein, penicillin; -scope, e.g. iconoscope, oscilloscope; meta-, e.g. meta-culture, metaprogram; para- meaning ‘related to, near’, e.g. paralinguistic, parabiospheric; video-, e.g. videodisk, videophone, etc.

2. Синонимия. Типы синонимов.

Synonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech. They convey the same concept but differ in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. They’re no two absolutely identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of occurrence are different.

Types:

1.       Idiographic – different in shades of meaning (To happen – to occur – to befall – to chance)

2.       Stylistic – differ in stylistic characteristics (child – infant – kid; to die – to kick the bucket)

3.       Absolute – very few in the language, mostly terms (concept – notion)

4.       Dialectical synonyms – belong to different dialects

·         Lift – elevator

·         Queue – line

·         Autumn – fall 

5.       Contextual synonyms

Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become synonyms in a certain context

·         Tasteless – dull

·         Active – curious

·         Curious – responsive

6.       Cognitive synonyms – the distinction between such items lies not so much in their inner lexical meaning, but in the sphere of their actual usage, the actual meanings of the words reflect relations which hold between lexical items within the communicative space (forest – woods; to stare – to gaze)

7.        Functional synonyms – the term is not lexicological proper as it refers to different syntactic units capable of performing one and the same syntactic function (ex. Subordinate Object Clause and Complex Object constructions are functional synonyms)

8.       Referential synonyms – a vague term, concerns co-referential expressions, when one denotation can be defined differently from different points of view and in different aspects: ex. names Walter Scott and the author of 'Ivanhoe' are co-referential because they refer to one and the same denotation – Sir Walter Scott

№15

1. Скандинавские заимствования

English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are borrowings from Scandinavian, German and Holland languages, though their number is much less than borrowings from Romanic languages.
Scandinavian borrowings. By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.
Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life,their cultural level was the same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.
ON OE Modern E
syster sweoster sister
fiscr fisc fish
felagi felawe fellow
However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English , such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.
Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as : same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their.
Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs which did not exist in Old English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/.

2. Синонимический ряд. Доминанта синонимического ряда.

Synonyms - are two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some context.

Synonyms form a synonymic group. Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all other members of the synonymic group.
e.g. leave – depart – quit – retire – clear out; where ‘leave’ is a synonymic dominant (most general and both stylistically and emotionally neutral)
The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent. So, any dominant synonym is a typical basic-vocabulary word.
Characteristic features of the dominant synonym:
• high frequency of usage
• broad combinability, i.e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words
• broad general meaning
• lack of connotations

№16

1. Французские заимствования

French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge.

There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings:

a) words relating to government : administer, empire, state, government;

b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle;

c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister;

d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery;

e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl ;

f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew.

Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings:

a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville;

b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre;

c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau;

d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.

2. Эвфемизмы как особый тип синонимии.

There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite.

Euphemism – a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.

e.g. 'to die' has:

• the following euphemisms: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone

• the more facetious euphemisms: to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost

So euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing a deliberately mild effect. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing device". The linguistic peculiarity of euphemism lies in the fact that every euphemism must call up a definite synonym in the mind of the reader or listener. Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following: religious – moral – medical – parliamentary.

All the euphemisms are used to avoid the so-called social taboos.

The life of euphemisms is short. They very soon become closely associated with the referent (the object named) and give way to a newly coined word or combination of words, which, being the sign of a sign, throws another veil over an unpleasant or indelicate concept.

№17

1. Причины заимствования слов. Способы заимствования.

Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests when foreign words are in effect imposed upon the reluctant conquered nation. There are also periods of peace when the process of borrowing is due to trade and international cultural relations. These latter circumstances are certainly more favourable for stimulating the borrowing process, for during invasions and occupations the natural psycho¬logical reaction of the oppressed nation is to reject and condemn the language of the oppressor.

The Norman culture of the 11th c. was certainly superior to that of the Saxons. The result was that an immense number of French words forced their way into English vocabulary. Yet, linguistically speak¬ing, this seeming defeat turned into a victory. Instead of being smashed and broken by the powerful intrusion of the foreign element, the English language managed to preserve its essential structure and vastly enriched its expressive resources with the new borrowings. Sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary. When the Saxons borrowed Latin words for "butter", "plum", "beet", they did it because their own vocabu¬laries lacked words for these new objects. For the same reason the words potato and tomato were borrowed by English from Spanish when these vegetables were first brought to England by the Spaniards.

There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, — almost, but not exactly. It is borrowed be¬cause it represents the same concept in some new as¬pect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrow¬ing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. That is how the Latin cordial was added to the native friendly, the French desire to wish, the Latin admire and the French adore, like and love. Borrowings enter the language into 2 ways:

• through the oral speech (immediate contact between the people; words are usually short; in the early period of history)

• through the written speech (by indirect contact through books; preserve their spelling; some peculiarities of sound system)

TO SUM UP:

Latin borrowings:

Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.

Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc.

French borrowings:

Most of them came into E during the Norman Conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of E but also its spelling, bcs French scribes wrote documents as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French.

Italian borrowings: bank, volcano, granite, bronze, lava.

Spanish borrowings: cargo, tango, guitar, cocoa, banana, apricot.

2. Антонимия. Типы антонимов.

Antonyms – are words belonging to the same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together, so their denotative meaning render contrary or contradictory notions. There exist different classifications of antonyms.

Structurally, antonyms can be divided into antonyms of:

• the same root (do – undo, cheerful – cheerless)

• different roots (day – night)

Semantically, antonyms may be classified into:

1) Contrary A. – gradable, don’t deny one another, refer to some norm (cold (-cool-) – (-warm-) hot)

2) Contradictory A. – not gradable, deny one another (male-female, live-die)

3) Conversive A. – one situation, but from different points of view (husband-wife, teacher-pupil, before-after)

4) Vectorial A. – denote differently directed actions/features (rise-fall, arrive-depart, appear-disappear)

№18

1. Ассимиляция заимствований в языке. Степени ассимиляции слов

The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors:

• from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier

• in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker

• how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated

• how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is.

Borrowings are subdivided into:

• completely assimilated (not felt as foreign words in the language, if the French word «sport» and the native word «start»)

• partly assimilated

a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc.

b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, and genius - genii etc.

c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically (the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero)

• non-assimilated (barbarisms) - are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc.

Levels of assimilation:

1. Phonetic A. (café, communiqué [ei]; spitz [sh])

2. Grammatical A. (babushka)

3. Morphological A. (vacuum – vacua = vacuums)

4. Lexical A. (‘move’ – highly polysemantic word nowadays – from Fr. ‘muvoir’ – only ‘двигать’)

2. Понятие «словосочетание». Отношения внутри словосочетаний.

A phrase is a combination of 2 or more notional words, connected by means of subordination, coordination and predicative relation if it cannot function as a sentence: mother and father

The syntactic structure of the word-groups a clever man, a red flower may be described as made up of an adjective and a noun; of the word-groups to take books, to build houses - as a verb and a noun. The structure of word-groups may also be described in relation to the head-word.  In this case it is usual to speak of the pattern but not of formulas. For example, the patterns of the verbal groups to take books, to build houses are to take + N, to build + N. The term syntactic pattern implies the description of the structure of the word-group in which a given word is used as its head. According to the syntactic pattern word-groups may be classified into predicative and non-predicative.

·     Predicative word-groups have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence, e.g. he went, John works.

·     Non-predicative word-groups may be subdivided into subordinative (red flower, a man of wisdom) and coordinative (women and children, do or die).

Structurally, al word-groups can be classified by the criterion of distribution into two extensive classes: endocentric and exocentric.

·         Endocentric word-groups are those that have one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word group, i.e. the distribution of the whole word-group and the distribution of its central member are identical. For instance, in the word-groups red flower, kind to people, the head-words are the noun flower and the adjective kind correspondingly. These word-groups are distributionally identical with their central components. According to their central members word-groups may be classified into: nominal groups or phrases (e.g. red flower), adjectival groups (e.g. kind to people), verbal groups (e.g. speak well), etc.

·          Exocentric word-groups are those that have no central component and the distribution of the whole word-group is different from either of its members. For instance, the distribution of the word-group side by side is not identical with the distribution of its component-members, i.e. the component-members are not syntactically substitutable for the whole word-group.

№19

1. дублеты. Интернациональные псевдоинтернациональные

I. In etymology, two or more words in the same language are called doublets or etymological twins (or triplet) when they have the same etymological root but have entered the language through different routes. Because the relationship between words that have the same root and the same meaning is fairly obvious, the term is mostly used to characterize pairs of words that have diverged in meaning, at times making their shared root a point of irony. e.g. The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.

e.g. also:

• shirt and skirt (both Germanic, the first from Old English, the latter from Old Norse)

• shadow, shade and shed (all three from Old English sceadu "shadow, shade")

• chief and chef (both from French at different times)

• secure and sure (from Latin, the latter via French)

• plant and clan (from Latin, the latter via Old Irish)

• right, rich, raj, regalia, reign, royal and real (from Germanic, Celtic, Sanskrit, Latin, French (twice) and Portuguese cognates, respectively)

• carton and cartoon, both ultimately the augmentative of Latin carta

II. International Words.

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of com¬munication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin.

Most names of sciences are international, e. g. philosophy, Mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology.

There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.

It is quite natural that political terms frequently oc¬cur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism.20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The latter is a Russian borrowing, and it became an international word (meaning a man-made satellite) in 1961, immedi¬ately after the first space flight by Yury Gagarin.

The English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages. Among them the sports terms occupy a prominent position: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis.

Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic coun¬tries often transport their names too and, being simul-taneously imported to many countries, become inter¬national: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.

It is important to note that international words are mainly borrowings. The outward similarity of such words as the E. son, the Germ. Sohn and the R. СЫН should not lead one to the quite false conclusion that they are international words. They represent the Indo-European group of the native element in each respec¬tive language and are cognates, i. e. words of the same etymological root, and not borrowings.

III. Pseudointernational words (ложные друзья переводчика).

As a matter of fact, very few international words have the same meanings in different languages. In respect to English and Russian we can cite the words like the English "parliament, theorem, diameter" and their Russian counterparts «парламент, теорема, диаметр». In most cases, however, the semantics of such words in English and in Russian do not coincide and they should rather be named "pseudointernational". Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors. For that reason they are often referred to as the translator's false friends.

The pseudointernational words can be classified in two main groups:

1) which are similar in form but completely different in meaning (lunatic = сумасшедший, а не лунатик)

2) words which are not fully interchangeable though there are some common elements in their semantics (Shakespeare's idiom = стиль, а не идиом)

More examples:

• activities - деятельность

• advocate - сторонник, защитник

• actual - фактический

• accurate - точный, меткий

• artist – художник

2. Типы словосочетаний в языке. Фразеологические единицы.

I. Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks functioning as whole. In any language there are certain restrictions imposed upon co-occurrence of words. They can be connected with linguistic factors or the ties in the extra-linguistic reality.

3 types of lexical combinability of words:

1) Free combinations – grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability. FC permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.

Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.

2) Collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.

Ex.: to commit a murder , Bread & butter, Blue sky

3) Idioms – also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.

Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly.

II. Phraseological unit / set expression / idiom – a complex word-equivalent in which the globality of nomination reigns supreme over the formal separability of elements. It is reproduced in speech. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units.

- collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words (bed and board)

- unities – one component preserves its direct meaning (to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность)

- fusions – degree of semantic isolation is the highest (to kick the bucket = to die)

№20

1. Морфемная структура слова, понятие морфемы. Типы морфем.

Mopheme – a two-facet unit (spelling & meaning). M. can’t be used separately and can’t be segmented without losing its meaning.

Segmentable words:

1) complete segmentability – exist in words where one can identify parts (child|hood, driv|er)

2) conditional s. – receive-conceive-deceive

3) defective s. – ringlet, hamlet

Types of morphemes:

1. Semantically:

• root-morphemes (making up a word-cluster): teach, teacher, teaching.

• affixational morphemes (prefixes and affixes).

2. Structurally:

• free m. – coincides with the stem 2 or a word-form (friend-)

• bound m. – constituent part of a word (e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ship, -ize, etc., the prefixes un-, dis-, de-, etc. (e.g. readiness, comradeship, to activize; unnatural, to displease, to decipher))

• semi-bound m. – can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a free morpheme (‘well’ and ‘half’ - sleep well, well-known; half an hour, half-done)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Особенности значения фразеологических

Phraseological units – word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Can be:

• collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words (bed and board)

• unities – one component preserves its direct meaning (to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность)

• fusions – the degree of semantic isolation is the highest. It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression (to kick the bucket = to die)

Also:

• combinations – both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense (to see the light = to understand)

• proverbs/sayings (Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back)

• formulas of politeness (How do you do? Good-bye. How about a drink?)

• clichés – expressions are store in our mind, ready-made (it is high time to…)

• quotations–to support our arguments, to add some prominence (to be or not to be)

№21

1. Способы образования новых слов в английском языке. Конверсия.

Word-building

• Process of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;
• Provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Conversion consists of making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech (a look – to look)

The meaning of a new word

• Differs from that of the original one;
•  Can be associated with it.

Conversion:

1) The semantic change that regularly accompanies each instance of conversion

Yellow leaves (adjective denotes colour)

The leaves were turning yellow (adjective denotes the process of changing colour)

2) The regularity and completeness with which converted units develop a paradigm of their new category of part of speech

Regularities in meanings of converted words

·     The name of a tool or implement - an action performed by the tool (to pencil)

·     The name of an animal - an action or aspect of behaviour considered typical of this animal (to ape)

·     The name of a part of the human body — an action performed by it (to hand)

·     The name of a profession or occupation — an activity typical of it (to cook)

·     The name of a place — the process of occupying the place or of putting smth/smb in it (to room)

·     The name of a container — the act of putting smth within the container (to pocket)

·     The name of a meal — the process of taking it (to lunch)

Types:

1.       verbalization (formation of verbs) to ape from ape

2.       substantivation (formation of nouns) a private from private

3.       adjectivation (formation of adj.) down - adj from adv.

4.       adverbalization (formation of adverbs) home - adv from a noun.

Verbs converted from nouns are called denominal verbs. If the noun refers to some object of reality the converted verb may denote:

1)                  action characteristic of the object (to ape – imitate in a foolish way)

2)                  instrumental use of the object (whip - strike with a whip)

3)                  acquisition or addition to the object (fish - to catch a fish)

4)                  deprivation of an object (dust - remove dust from smth)

5)                  location (pocket-put into a pocket)

Nouns converted from verbs are called deverbal substantives. If the verb refers to an action, converted noun can denote:

1)                  instance of the action (jump - sudden spring from the ground)

2)                  agent of the action (help - a person who helps)

3)                  place of the action (drive - a road )

4)                  result of the action (peel – the outer skin of a fruit)

5)                  object of the action (let – a property available to rent)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Полисемия и омонимия фразеологических

Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units

·         Always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations

·         Grammatical structure is stable

3 types (by Vinogradov)

1.   Phraseological collocations: motivated; have a certain degree of stability; variability of member-words is strictly limited (heavy rain)

2.   Phraseological unities: partially non-motivated; their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning; have comparatively high degree of stability (rain or shine)

3.   Phraseological fusions: non-motivated; the meaning of the components has no connections with the meaning of the whole group; have complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion (Kilkenny cats)

Polysemy means the ability of words to have more than one meaning. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic. There are 2 processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and catenation.

·         Radiation: the process when a word acquires a wider range of meanings. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning.

Face - the front part of the human head (the main meaning)

Face - the front part of the building (secondary meaning)

·         Catenation: secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. It is difficult to trace some meanings to the main one.

Crust -> hard outer part of bread -> hard part of anything -> harder layer over soft snow -> a sullen gloomy person

 Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound of spelling or both in sound and spelling. Homonyms can appear in the language as a result of the split of polysemy and also as a result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical.

Homonyms appear as a result of:

1.  The phonetic convergence of 2 words of different pronunciation & meaning

Race → a) people derives from Old Norwegian “ras”
              b) running, from French “race”

2.   The semantic divergence or loss of semantic bond between 2 words polysemantically related before

Pupil → a) scholar
              b) apple of an eye (зрачок)

Types:

• Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different both in their sound-form and meaning

tear n [tɪə] — ‘a drop of water that comes from the eye’

tear v [tɛə] — ‘to pull apart by force’

·         Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different both in spelling and in meaning

Sea – see

Son – sun

• Perfect homonyms are words identical both in spelling and in sound-form but different in meaning

Case n — ’something that has happened’

Case n — ‘a box, a container’

Full homonyms represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm: match, n – матч, match, n – спичка

Partial homonyms:

1)      simple lexico-grammatical belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form (lay, v (inf.) - lay, v (to lie))

2)      complex lexico-grammatical different categories of parts of speech and have one identical form (rose, n-  rose, v (to rise))

3)      lexical the same category of part of speech and are identical only in their corresponding forms (to can, v - can, v (modal))

№22

1. Способы образования новых слов. Аффиксация. Типы аффиксов.

Word-formation – the process of forming words by combining root and affixal morphemes according to certain patterns specific for the language (affixation, composition), or without any outward means of word formation (conversion, semantic derivation).
Affixation – word-forming suffixes:
I. Native:
• noun-forming suffixes: -er, -ness, -ing, -dom, -hood, -ship, -th
• adjective-forming suffixes: -ful, -y, -ly, -some, -less, -ish, -en
• verb-forming suffixes: -en
• adverb-forming suffixes: -ly
II. Borrowed:
1. Latin:
• noun-forming suffixes: -ion, -tion
• adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -ate, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar
• verb-forming suffixes: -ate, -ute, -ct, -de, dis-
2. French:
• noun-forming suffixes: -ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -ess
• adjective-forming suffixes: -ous
• verb-forming suffixes: -en- (enable)
Affixes can be:
• Productive (-ism)
• Non-productive (-hood)

2. Фразеологические единицы. Различные типы классификаций.

Phraseological units – word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. Can be:
I. Types lexical combinability of words:
1) Free combinations – grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability. FC permits substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.
Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.
2) Collocations – the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.
Ex.: to commit a murder , Bread & butter, Blue sky
3) Idioms – also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.
Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly.
II. This classification of idioms according to their structure:
1. Fixed idioms
a) fixed regular idioms
• It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question
b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level)
• to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...)

2. Variable (varied on the lexical level)
Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame
• to mind one’s own business /to mind one business
• to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть)
• dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard
• AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet
III. Semantic classification:
1. Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole.
Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die
It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression
The degree of semantic isolation is the highest. => phraseological fusions
2. Semi-opaque
one component preserves its direct meaning
Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность
=> phraseological unities
3. Transparent
both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense
Ex.: to see the light = to understand
=> phraseological combinations
IV. Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”.
1. Nominative
• A hard nut to crack
2. Nominative–communicative
• The ice is broken
3. Interjectional & modal
• Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!)
• As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2)
4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings)
• There is no smoke without fire.
5. Nominative:
• Substantive: crocodile tears
• Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber
• Adverbial: by & by, to & fro
• Verbal: to live like a lord

№23

1. Аффиксация. Этимологическая классификация. Продуктивность и частотность. Значение. Полуаффиксы.

Affixation – the process of adding 1 or more affixes to some root morpheme.

Аffixes:

·         Nаtive

·         Borrowed

Nаtive

Noun-forming

-er: worker

-ness: loneliness

-ing: feeling

-dom: freedom

-hood: childhood

-ship: friendship

-th: length

Adjective-forming

·         ful: careful

·         less: careless

·         y: cozy

·         ish: English

·         ly: lonely

·         en: wooden

·         some: handsome

Verb-forming

·         en: darken

Adverb-forming

·         ly: warmly

Borrowed

·         are numerous in the English vocabulary;

·         are borrowed not in the same way and for the same reasons as words;

·         begin an independent and active life in the recipient language;

·         take part in the word-making processes of the language;

·         the total number of words with the affix is great in the recipient language;

·         the native speakers no longer realize their foreign origin.

Lаtin аffixes:

Nouns

·         ion: opinion

·         tion: relation

Verbs

·         ate: appreciate

·         ute: contribute

·         ct: collect

·         d(e): applaud, divide

·         dis: disable

Adjectives

·         able: detestable

·         ate: accurate

·         ant: important

·         ent: absent

·         or: major

·         al: cordial

·         ar: familiar

French аffixes:

Nouns

·         ance: endurance

·         ence:  intelligence

·         ment: appointment

·         age: marriage

·         ess: actress

Adjectives

·         ous: curious

Verbs

·         en: enable

Affixes may be:

1.       productive - new words in this particular period of language development

2.       non-productive

Nonce-words and neologisms

It is an unputdownable thriller (a nonce-word):

Borrowed suffix -able & the native prefix un- are highly productive

Productive:

Noun-forming suffixes

-er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance

Adjective-forming suffixes

-y, -ish, -ed (learned), -able, -less

Adverb-forming suffixes

-ly

Verb-forming suffixes

-ize/-ise, -ate

Prefixes

un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), dis- (disappoint)

Non-Productive:

Noun-forming suffixes

-th, -hood

Adjective-forming suffixes

-ly, -some, -en, -ous

Verb-forming suffix

-en

Frequency of occurrence:

The adjective-forming native suffixes: -ful, -ly

The adjective-forming suffixes of Latin origin -ant, -ent, -al which are quite frequent.

Meanings of affixes

·         are specific & considerably differ from those of root morphemes

·         widely generalized:

The adjective-forming suffix -ful has the meaning of "full of", "characterized by"

Beautiful, careful

The meaning of the suffix – y:

"Characterized by or inclined to the substance or action of the root to which the affix is attached” (The Random-House Dictionary).

But:

fishy — improbable, hard to believe

touchy — apt to take offence on slight provocation, i. e. resenting a touch or contact (not at all inclined to be touched)

A (root) + B (suffix)

A (root) + C (suffix)

The difference lies in the meaning of the suffix

·         womanly — womanish

·         reddened — reddish

·         shortened — shortish

 the meanings of the suffixes are distinct

 they colour the whole words

ex.: womanly is used in a complimentary manner about girls and women; womanish is used to indicate an effeminate man and certainly implies criticism.

Semi-affixes

-man: chairman, clergyman, fireman, fisherman

-like: ladylike, childlike

-worthy: noteworthy

-wise: otherwise, clockwise, crosswise

-way(s): anyway(s), always, crossways

-proof: damp-proof, fire-proof, bomb-proof, waterproof

-monger and –wright: completely dead as independent words

The existing combinations with the element -monger have a strongly humiliating character: fashionmonger, scandalmonger. Only the words that existed in the language from before 1500 are emotionally neutral: fishmonger, ironmonger

 -wright occurs in playwright, shipwright, wheelwright.

In pre-position like prefixes: mini-bus, mini-skirt, midi-coat, maxi-coat, self-help.

The factors conducing to transition of free forms into semi-affixes are high semantic productivity, adaptability, combinatorial capacity (high valency), and brevity.

2. АЯ в США. Грамматические и фонетические особенности языка.

Phonetic peculiarities of American English
AmE is marked by certain phonetic peculiarities. They include different pronunciation of the words and different intonation patterns. The system of phonemes is the same as in BrE, with the exception of the American retroflexive [r]-sound, and the labialized [h] in such words as what, why, white, wheel, etc.
The following phonetic differences should be mentioned:

1. Vowel system:

·         [æ] – AmE, BrE - [a:], as in plant, grass, half, bath

·         [Λ] – AmE, BrE - [o], as in body, shot, hot

·         [І] or [ə] – AmE, BrE - [ai], as in civilization, specialization

·         [u] - AmE instead of [ju] in BrE, as in suit, duty, knew, Tuesday, student

2. Consonant system:

·         [t] Is voiced in the intervocalic position and before “l”, as in letter, little, bitter, battle

·         [t] Is lost after “n”: twenty, wanted

·         [r] Is pronounced in such positions as father, dirt, far, car

Grammatical differences

·         Past Simple instead of Present Perfect

·         Past participle of "got" is "gotten"

·         Will instead of shall

·         Going to – gonna

·         Using do instead of does in the third person, esp. in negative form

·         After verbs demand, insist, require, etc should usually is NOT used. I demanded that he apologize (instead of I demanded that he should apologize in British variant)

·         Verbs which are irregular in the British variant, in the American variant are ALWAYS regular

·         Take a shower/a bath instead of have a shower/a bath

·         Don't need to (do) instead of needn't (do)

·          To/in THE hospital instead of to/in hospital

·         On the weekend/on weekend instead of at the weekend/at weekend

·         On a street instead of in a street

·          Different from/than instead of different to/from

·         Past Perfect, as a rule, is not used completely

·         The adjectives slow & real are used as adverbs: He likes to drive slow (instead of slowly); She's real nice (instead of really)

·         Collective nouns are used with verbs in singular instead of plural (the audience was, the government has)

№24

1. Способы образования новых слов в английском языке. Словосложение. Структурная и семантическая классификация сложных слов.

Word-building

·     processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

·     provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Types:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Composition
4. Shortening (Contraction)
5. Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia)
6. Reduplication
7. Back-formation (reversion)
8. Sound-interchange
9. Stress-interchange
10. Blends

Compounding:
1. neutral
• Simple (bedroom)
• Derivational (lady-kill|er)
• Contracted (T-shirt)
2. morphological (stem + cons/vow + stem)
• (AnglO-Saxon)
• S (spokeSman)
• I (handIcraft)
3. syntactic
• Articles + stems
• Prepositions + stems (Jack-of-all-trades)
• Adverbs + stems (leg-pulling)
Compounds:
• Idiomatic (wall-flower)
• Non-idiomatic (classroom)
Criteria:
• Semantic (single concept)
• Phonetic (single stress): a black bird / a blackbird
• Morphological/syntactic: a tall handsome boy / a tallboy
Compounds can be classified according to their structure:
• consisting of simple stem (heartbreak)
• compounds where at least one stem is a derived one (football player)
• where one stem is clipped (Xmas, H-bag (handbag))
• where one of the elements is also a compound (wastepaper basket)
• so-called reduplicative compounds (tick-tick, chow-chow)

2. Пословицы и поговорки.

There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).
Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Sources of idioms:
1. from our everyday life
• to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth
• to sail under false colour (прятать истинное лицо)
• to loose track of smb (потерять кого-либо из виду, давно не видеть)
• a leopard can(’t) change its spots
2. from the Bible
• black sheep, lost sheep (заблудшая овца)
• To cast pearls before swine (метать бисер перед свиньями)
3. World literature
• to fight against Windmills
• an ugly duckling (Danish) – гадкий утенок
4. different languages
• to lose face (Chinese)
• “The course of true love has never run smooth” Shakespeare “The 12th night”
• “The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”
5. from history
• to cross the Rubicon (отважиться на какой-то бесповоротный шаг)
• Labours of Hercules
• To bell the cat (взять на себя инициативу в опасном деле)
Sayings may be classified under a number of different terms, of which proverb is probably the best known.
• proverb: a piece of common-sense wisdom expressed in practical, homely terms ("A stitch in time saves nine")
• adage: is a time-honored and widely known saying ("Where there's smoke, there's fire")
• maxim: a general rule of behaviour drawn from practical experience ("Neither a borrower nor a lender be")
• motto: a maxim adopted as a principal of conduct ("Honesty is the best policy")
• epigram: is a brief, witty, or satirical statement that often gains effect through paradox ("The only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it")
• aphorism: similar to an epigram but more profound rather than witty ("He is a fool that cannot conceal is wisdom")

 №25

1. Английский язык в США. Лексические особенности.

AE- one of the dialects of the E language. Vocabulary has features of its own. There are the whole groups of words which belong to Americanisms

1) Historical Americanisms

17 century - first English migrants in America. It was then that E was spoken first in America. The noun "fall" still used in its old meaning autumn/sick to tell that you are unwell. These words although The Americans and The British use them in different meaning, are found in both vocabularies.

2) Proper Americanisms

unlikely to be found in British vocabulary. Formed by the 1 migrants. They faced a lot of new strange things and new words were formed (blue-grass(a sort of grass in North America), sun-fish( fish with a round golden body) Familiar to English, but cannot be found in the English vocabulary.

3) Later proper Americanisms

objects in England and The USA: Underground(BR)-subway(Amer)

4) Borrowings

(ranch(Spanish)/wigwam/pale-face(Indian)

5) American Shortenings

Shortening is a productive way of word—building both in the USA and England.Ex-movies/talkies/gym/mo(for a moment)/circs (for circumstances) /n.g.(for no good)

2. Критерии разграничения сложного слова и словосочетания.

Criteria of distinguishing between compounds and free-word combinations.
Compound words
consist of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms;
are reproduced and used in speech as lexical units;
are not formed in speech like free-word combinations;
pronounced as lexical units (a red rose, a redskin).
Semantically: convey a single concept and are characterized by a high degree of semantic cohesion-doesn’t work with phras.units.
Phonetically: have a single stress, doesn’t work with compound adjectives (Blackbird, blue-eyed)
Morphologically/syntactically:in word combinations the parts are open to gramm.changes (a tall boy=taller boys), other words can be added in between (a tall handsome boy)

№26

1. Английские территориальные диалекты и диалектная лексика.

Acc. to H. W. Fowler, a dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. (e. g. the Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Norfolk dialects). So dialects are regional forms of English. Standard English is defined by the Random House Dictionary as the English language as it is written and spoken by literate people in both formal and informal usage and that is universally current while incorporating regional differences.
Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary language. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words.
On the British Isles there are some local varieties of English which developed from Old English local dialects. There are six groups of them: Lowland /Scottish/, Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern, Southern. These varieties are used in oral speech by the local population. Only the Scottish dialect has its own literature /Robert Berns, a poet, who wrote in “Lallans Scots”/.
One of the best known dialects of British English is the dialect of London - Cockney. Some peculiarities of this dialect can be seen in the first act of «Pigmalion» by B. Shaw, such as : interchange of /v/ and /w/ e.g. wery vell; interchange of /f/ and /0/ , /v/ and / /, e. g/ fing /thing/ and fa:ve / father/; interchange of /h/ and /-/ , e.g. «’eart» for «heart» and «hart» for «art; substituting the diphthong /ai/ by /ei/ e.g. «day» is pronounced /dai/; substituting /au/ by /a:/ , e.g. «house» is pronounced /ha:s/,«now« /na:/ ; substituting /ou/ by /o:/ e.g. «don’t» is pronounced /do:nt/ or substituting it by / / in unstressed positions, e.g. «window» is pronounced /wind /.
Another feature of Cockney is rhyming slang: «hat» is «tit for tat», «wife» is «trouble and strife», «head» is «loaf of bread» etc. There are also such words as «tanner» /sixpence/, «peckish»/hungry/.
Peter Wain in the «Education Guardian» writes about accents spoken by University teachers: «It is a variety of Southern English RP which is different from Daniel Jones’s description. The English, public school leavers speak, is called «marked RP», it has some characteristic features : the vowels are more central than in English taught abroad, e.g. «bleck het»/for «black hat»/, some diphthongs are also different, e.g. «house» is pronounced /hais/. There is less aspiration in /p, b, t, d/.
The American English is practically uniform all over the country, because of the constant transfer of people from one part of the country to the other. However, some peculiarities in New York dialect can be pointed out, such as: there is no distinction between / / and /a: / in words: «ask», «dance» «sand» «bad», both phonemes are possible. The combination «ir» in the words: «bird», «girl» «ear» in the word «learn» is pronoinced as /oi/ e.g. /boid/, /goil/, /loin/.In the words «duty’, «tune» /j/ is not pronounced /du:ti/, /tu:n/.

26 (1)
Local dialects in Great Britain.
5 main groups: (Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern).
Cockney (Southern)
exists on 2 levels.
- as spoken by the educated lower middle classes (a regional dialect marked by some derivation in pronunciation but few in vocabulary and syntax)
- as spoken by the uneducated (Cockney differs from Standard En. not only in pronunc. but in voc., morphology and syntax).
specific feature - rhyming slang (boots are called daisy roots).
“Estuary English”.
(recent decades - a new dialect) A hybrid of Received Pronunciation and a number of South-Eastern dialects. Use of Cockney words and words from American and Australian E. popular among the young (sounds more “sophisticated”), often it is adopted as a neutral dialect. can be heard in the House of Commons, heard on the BBC.
Yorkshire dialect.
(Northern and Midlands) spoken by the majority of people in En. county of York. Discussed in terms of the three Riding that correspond to the historical administration areas of North, East and South Yorkshire. Linguistic changes – armpit (Standard En. – oxter (North Riding) – armpit (East Riding) – armhole (West Riding). Owing to the Norman Conquest some Yorkshire words have in relation to their Scandinavian counterparts, a testimony to their historical origins: child (Stand. En. ) – bairn (Yorkshire dialect) – barn (Modern Norwegian). The Yorkshire dialect has the variety of idiomatic expressions: allus at t’ last push up - ‘always at the last moment’.
Dialects are said to undergo rapid changes under the pressure of Standard En. taught at schools and the speech habits cultivated by radio, television and other means of mass media.

2. Способы образования новых слов. Сложносокращенные слова. Перемещение ударения. Корневое чередование.

Word-building

·     processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language;

·     provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

Types:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Composition
4. Shortening (Contraction)
5. Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia)
6. Reduplication
7. Back-formation (reversion)
8. Sound-interchange
9. Stress-interchange
10. Blends

2 principle types of word-formation: Word derivation/Word composition
I. Word derivation: affixation and conversion
Affixation - formation of new words with the help of affixes(heartless, from heart)
Conversion - formation of new words by bringing a stem of this word into a different formal paradigm(fall, from to fall)
II. Word composition is the formation of new words by combining 2 or more stems that occur in the language as free forms(house-keeper)
Shortening is the formation of a word by cutting off a part of the word.
1)initial (phone-telephone)
2)medial or syncope (fancy-fantasy)
3)final or apocope (veg-vegetable)
Blending - formation of new words by combining parts of 2 words.
1) additive: smog = smoke and fog
2) restrictive: telecast = television broadcast
Abbreviation - formation of new words from the initial letters.
1) ordinary(UNESCO)
2) alphabetical (BBC)
Sound-interchange is the formation of the word due to alteration in the phonemic composition of its ROOT.
1)Vowel-interchange(food-to feed)
2) consonant interchange(advice-advise)
Onomatopoeia(Sound imitation) - naming of an action by a more or less exact reproduction of the sound associated with it(cock-a-doodle-do)
Distinctive stress(increase, suspect)
Stress Shift.
Creating new words by adding certain suffixes can cause the main word stress to shift rightward. These suffixes are called strong suffixes.The stress shifts will occur with the addition of the strong suffix if the word is long enough, and if the stress is far back enough on the base.
suffix base derived word
-al (ADJ) politics polítical
-ic alcohol alcohólic
-ity normal normality

Теоретическая фонетика

1. Segmental phonetics and phonology: phonemes and allophones

Phoneme as the smallest unit of phonology. Definitions of the phoneme. Main trends in phoneme theory: functional, psychological, physical. Types of phonemes. Phoneme and allophones. Principal and subsidiary allophones. Modifications of phonemes in speech: accommodation, assimilation, elision and reduction. Types of transcription.

            Phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit, realized in speech in the form of allophones. Phoneme is a functional unit:the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words or even phrases (#sed-sez hurt-heard); Ph can fulfill the distinctive function because it helps us to distinguish words, morphemes and phrases; ph is material, real and objective cause it really exists in the lang. in the material form of speech sounds; ph is objective cause it doesn’t depend on our intention; ph is an abstraction, cause we make it abstract from concrete realizations for classificatory purposes; ph functions to make 1 word distinct from the other. An isolated phoneme is an invariant . the articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant.

            Phonetics is the science which is concerned with the human noises: the nature of the noises, their combinations and their relation to the meaning. Phonetics: sound system of the l-ge (its segmental phonemes), word stress, syllabic structure, intonation. Phonology studies how the l-ge acts in the process of communication. Бодуэн started the studies of phoneme theory (PT) Scherba contributed a lot: In actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of. In every language these sounds are united in a  small # of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and form of words. They serve the purpose of social intercourse. These are phonemes- functional, Material and abstract unit. Vasilyev- phoneme is a dialectal unit of these aspects because they determine one another and are interdependent. The segmental phoneme is the smallest lang unit (sound type) that exists in the speech. The segmental phoneme is the smallest (further indivisible into smaller segments) language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech

Main Trends in PT: 1 Psychological point of view- regard a phoneme as a mental image or target at which the speaker aims.(Бодуэн+ Щерба, Сепир). 2 Fuctional (N.Trubetskoy, R.Jakobson– Пражский кружок) Ph is a minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to actually pronounced sounds (allophones are not taken into consideration). Within functional - abstract point of view (it’s stronger)( Copenhagen ling circle L.Hjelmslev,Шаумян, Трубецкой, Якобсон) – ph-s are absolutely independent of articulatory and acoustic properties which are associated with them. 3 Physical?) (D.Jones, B.Block, J.Trager ) Ph- is a “family” of related sounds, satisfying certain conditions: 1) the various members of the family must show some phonetic similarity to one another; 2) no member of the family may occur in the same phonetic context as any other.

Types of allophones:1. Principal:don’t undergo any distinguishable changes in speech;2.subsidiary-undergo disting.changes in speech. Subsidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Positional allophones are used in certain positions traditionally. For example, the English /1/ is realized in actual speech as a positional allophone: it is clear in the initial position, and dark in the terminal position, compare tight, let and hill, milt. Russian positional allophones can be observed in вопль, рубль where terminal /л/ is devoiced after voiceless /п, б/. Combinatory all-s appear in the process of speech as a result of influence of 1 phoneme upon another (dog –labialized/did you – didju – labial and palat).

Modifications of phonemes in connected speech

-          Assimilation can be: 1) progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself (desks, pegs); 2) regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the first sound similar to itself (at the - the alveolar [t] becomes dental); 3) double, or reciprocal, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other (twice – [t] is rounded] and [w] is partly devoiced)

-          Accommodation: the influence of the vowel on the consonant or the consonant on the vowel:    nasalization of vowels preceded or followed by nasal sonorants: never, men;    labialization of consonants preceding the vowels [ɔ:, ɒ, u:, ʊ]: shoe, bull.

-          Vowel reduction: qualitative or quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions, e.g. board – blackboard, man – postman. Zero reduction-is the omission of the unstressed vowel, occurs in a sequence of unstressed syl-s #history

-          Elision: complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants# I’v done it

Types of transcriptions. To denotephonemes slanted brakets are used //, but for allophones  square []. The 1^st type of transcription is called phonemic (broad) cause it’s based on the principal/1symbol per 1 phoneme/, the 2d is called phonetic (narrow) – 1 symbol per 1 allophoneJ

2.      Suprasegmental phonetics and phonology: syllable and word-stress

The syllabic structure of English and Russian. Definitions of the syllable. Types of syllables. Theories of syllable formation and syllable division. Functional characteristics of the syllable. Graphic characteristics of the syllable.

Stress, its types. The nature of word-stress. Qualitative and quantitative components of word-stress. Degrees of word-stress. Tendencies in the placement of word-stress. Functions of word-stress: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive. The most common stress patterns in English and in Russian. Word-stress and sentence-stress.

Definitions of S:

Syllables are minimal pronounceable units into which sounds cluster.

Functionally s is a chain of phonemes of dif. Length. It’s constructed on the basis of contrast of its elements (VC type)

The nucleus of a S is a V. The presence of C is optional. The distribution of phonemes in the syllabic structure follows the rules which are specific for a particular lang-ge. In Eng S can be formed by: V, VC, C+sonorant. Sonorant becomes syllabic if it occurs in an unstressed final position preceded by a noise C.

Types of syllables. Theories of syllable formation and syllable division.

1. Theories on the nature of the syllable

1) the expiratory, or chest pulse or pressure theory (R.H.Stetson).

The assumption: each syllable should correspond to a single expiration.

Criticism: a number of words and consequently syllables can be pronounced with a single expiration.

2) the sonority theory (O.Jespersen)

The assumption: each sound is characterized by a certain degree of sonority

Speech sounds rank: (most sonorous) the open vowels > the close vowels > the sonorants > the voiced fricatives > the voiced plosives > the voiceless fricatives > the voiceless plosives (least sonorous).

The most sonorous sounds tend to form the centre of the syllable and the least sonorous – the marginal segments.

Criticism:the most serious drawback of this theory is that it fails to explain the actual mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division.

3) the theory of muscular tension (L.V.Shcherba)

The assumption: there is a syllabic phoneme in the centre of the syllable. The energy, that is the tension of articulation, increases within the range of prevocalic consonants and then decreases within the range of postvocalic consonants. The syllable can be defined as an arc of articulatory (or muscular) tension.

A strong-end (initially weak) consonant - the beginning of this arc, i.e. of the syllable (zoo [ˢzu:]).

An initially-strong (weak-end) consonant - the end of an arc of articulatory effort (ooze [u:zˢ]).

A double-peaked geminated consonant is strong at both ends and weak in the middle$ can occur at the junction of two syllables (two words or morphemes), as in good day /gʊdʹdeɪ/, unknown /ʌnʹnoʊn/.

4) the loudness theory (N.I.Zhinkin)

 The assumption: the syllable could be thought of as the arc of loudness which correlates with the arc of articulatory effort on the speech production level.

2. Syllable formation

The features of the syllable:

1) a syllable is a chain of phonemes of varying length;

2) a syllable is constructed on the basis of contrast of its constituents (which is usually of vowel-consonant type);

3) the nucleus of a syllable is a vowel, the presence of consonants is optional; there are no languages in which vowels are not used as syllable nuclei, however, there are languages in which this function is performed by consonants;

4) the distribution of phonemes in the syllabic structure follows the rules which are specific enough for a particular language.

Syllable formation is based on the phonological opposition vowel – consonant.

Vowels are usually syllabic while consonants are not, with the exception of [l], [m], [n], which become syllabic if occur in an unstressed final position preceded by a noise consonant: [‘lıtl] little, [‘gα:dn] garden.

Four types of syllables

1) open                       [nəʊ]                            no                     CV

2) closed                     [ɒd]                              odd                  VC

3) covered                 [nəʊt]                            note                CV(C)

4) uncovered             [əʊ] ,[əʊk]                  oh, oak               V(C)              

In English the closed type of syllable is the fundamental one while in Russian the open type forms the basis of syllable formation.

The number of syllable varieties from the point of view of their structure is 23.

The number of syllables in the English word: 1-8 (come, city, family, simplicity, unnaturally, incompatibility, unintelligibility).

Syllables may be stressed and unstressed (also syllables with secondary stress in English).

Some peculiarities of the syllabic structure of English:

1)         syllabic boundary is inside intervocalic consonant preceded by vowels [e, æ, ʌ, ɒ], for example: Betty, racket, money, hotter;

2)         syllabic boundary is before an intervocalic consonant if it is not preceded by the above-mentioned vowels, for example: later, speaker

3)         the sonorants [l], [m], [n] are syllabic if they are preceded by noise consonants, for example: little, blossom, sudden;

4)         there cannot be more than one vowel (a diphthong or a monophthong) within one syllable;

5)         the typical and most fundamental syllabic structure is of (C)VC type;

6)         word final consonants are normally of weak-end type.

3. Syllable division

The part of phonetics that deals with grouping  of the sounds of a language into syllables according to certain rules is called phonotactics.

The free or checked character of the vowels determines syllable division usually in conjunction with the presence of stress on the vowel if there is only one consonant between the two vowels. 

1) V type, as /ɔ:/ awe: a vowel can form a syllable by itself. It is also an arc of loudness produced by an arc of articulatory effort.

2) (C)CV type: these vowels preserve their free nature in words of this type, although the upward slope of the syllable is formed by the prevocalic consonant or the cluster (e.g. me [mi:], slow [sləʊ]).

3) (C)V-V(C) or (C)V-CV(C) type: these vowels preserve their weak-end character in disyllabic and polysyllabic words in which they are followed by another vowel or are separated from a succeeding vowel by a single consonant. The point of syllable division is between the two vowels and before the intervocalic consonant (slower /´sləʊ-ə/; slowly /´sləʊ- lɪ/).

4) (C)VCC type: a long monophthong or diphthong occurs in an open syllable when it is separated by a single consonant from a word-final syllabic sonorant. The sonorant forms a syllable together with the preceding noise consonant: /´bi:- tl/ (beetle), /´ga:- dn/ (garden), /´teɪ- bl/ (table).

5) (C)V-CV(C) type: a historically short English monophthong under stress is checked. There is no weakening of articulatory effort towards its end and such a vowel can only occur in a closed stressed syllable. But when it is separated from a succeeding vowel by only one consonant, as in /ʹletə/ (letter) the syllabic boundary is within the intervocalic consonant, which is in this case a short (not geminated) double-peaked consonant the first part of which closes the preceding syllable while the second covers the succeeding one. (sitter [´sɪtə], letter [´letə], copy [´kɒpi], runner [´rʌnə]).

6) (C)V-CC(C) type: a short stressed vowel is in a closed syllable also when it is separated by a single consonant sound from a sonorant. The point of syllable division within the consonant separating the short vowel from the sonorant: /bɪtn/ (bitten), /lesn/ (lesson), /fætn/ (fatten), /mıdl/ (middle).

7) In English words with a syllabic sonorant followed by a vowel, like /´glʌtnı/ (gluttony), /ʹflænlı/ (flannely), the sonorant is apparently a long double-peaked consonant the first part of which forms a syllable with the preceding consonant, while the second constitutes the upword slope of the succeeding syllable formed by a vowel. (listening /´lısnıŋ/.

8) a pre-tonic unstressed short vowel, unstressed long monophthong or diphthong separated from a succeeding stressed vowel by a single consonant occurs in the open syllable: (ago, elect, partition, idea).

9) a post-tonic short vowel, long monophthong or diphthong separated from a following vowel by a single consonant occurs in the open syllable. The point of syllable division is before the consonant: /´fæmılı/ (family), /´kɒlənɪ/ (colony).

10) When two vowels are separated from each other by two consonants the point of syllable division in English very often is conditioned by whether this cluster occurs at the beginning of English words or not. If it does, the point of syllable division is before the cluster; if it does not, the syllabic boundary is between the consonants: agree [ə´ɡri:]; abrupt [ə´brʌpt], but admit /əd-´mɪt/ with the clusters that can never be found in the word initial position and such clusters, consequently, should be broken by syllabic boundary: /əd-´maɪə/ admire, /əb-´hɔ:/ abhor.

11) at the junction of two morphemes a cluster that does occur word-initially is broken up by the syllabic boundary: /twaɪs/ (twice); /ʹwaɪt-wɒʃ/ (whitewash).

12) the number of intervocalic consonants is three (/‘ekstrə/extra).  Possible points of syllable division:

a)[‘ek-strə] – back street

b)[‘eks-trə] – six try

c)[‘ekst-rə] – mixed ray

4.Functions of the syllable

1) the constitutive function.

It lies in its ability to be part of a word or a word itself. The syllable forms language units of greater magnitude, that is words, morphemes and utterances. The syllable is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and suprasegmental features.

2) the distinctive function.

In this respect the syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms.

The distinction between [naı-′treıt] nitrate - [naıt-′reıt] night-rate :

a)         the degree of aspiration of [t] sounds which is greater in the first member of the opposition than in the second;

b)         allophonic difference of [r]: in the first member of the opposition it is slightly devoiced under the influence of the initial [t];

c)         the length of the diphthong [aɪ]: in the second member of the opposition it is shorter because the syllable is closed by a voiceless plosive [t].

The analogical distinction between word combinations can be illustrated by many more examples:

An aim – a name

Mice kill – my skill

An ice house – a nice house

Peace talks – pea stalks

Plate rack – play track

might rain – my train

Sometime the difference in syllabic division might be the basic ground for differentiation sentences in such minimal pairs as:

I saw her eyes. – I saw her rise.

I saw the meat. – I saw them eat.

3) recognitive function – the listener can understand the meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the correct syllabic boundary.

- Syllable formation and syllable division.

Speech is a continuum. However, it can be broken into minimal pro-nounceable units into which sounds show a tendency to cluster or group themselves. These smallest phonetic groups are generally given the name of syllables. A meaningful language unit phonetically may be considered from the point of view of syllable formation and syllable division.

The syllable is a complicated phenomenon and like a phoneme it can be studied on four levels - articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional. The complexity of the phe-nomenon gave rise to many theories.

We could start with the so-called expiratory (chest pulse or pressure) theory by R.H. Stetson. This theory is based on the assumption that expiration in speech is a pulsat-ing process and each syllable should correspond to a single expiration. So the number of syllables in an utterance is determined by the number of expirations made in the produc-tion of the utterance. This theory was strongly criticized by Russian and foreign linguists. G.P. Torsuyev, for example, wrote that in a phrase a number of words and consequently a number of syllables can be pronounced with a single expiration. This fact makes the valid-ity of the theory doubtful.

Another theory of syllable put forward by O. Jespersen is generally called the sonority theory. According to O. Jespersen, each sound is characterized by a certain degree of sonority which is understood us acoustic property of a sound that determines its perceptibility. According to V.A. Vasssilyev the most serious drawback of this theory is that it fails to explain the actual mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division. Besides, the concept of sonority is not very clearly defined.

Further experimental work aimed to description of the syllable resulted in lot of other theories. However the question of articulatory mechanism of syllable in a still an open question in phonetics. We might suppose that this mechanism is similar in all languages and could be regarded as phonetic universal.

In Russian linguistics there has been adopted the theory of syllable by LV Shcherba. It is called the theory of muscular tension. In most languages there is the syl-labic phoneme in the centre of the syllable which is usually a vowel phoneme or, in some languages, a sonorant. The phonemes preceding or following the syllabic peak are called marginal. The tense of articulation increases within the range of prevocalic consonants and then decreases within the range of postvocalic consonants.

Trying to define the syllable from articulatory point of view we may talk about uni-versals. When we mean the functional aspect of the syllable it should be defined with the reference to the structure of one particular language.

The definition of the syllable from the functional point of view tends to single out the following features of the syllable:

a) a syllable is a chain of phonemes of varying length;b)  a syllable is constructed on the basis of contrast of its constituents (which is usual-ly of vowel - consonant type);c)   the  nucleus  of a  syllable  is a  vowel,  the  presence of consonants  is optional; there are no languages in which vowels are not used as syllable nuclei, however, there are languages in which this function is performed by consonants;d) the distribution of phonemes in the syllabic structure follows by the rules which are specific enough for a particular language.

-          GRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYLLABLE

The auditory image of a syllable can be shown in transcription: unknown /1лп-1пзип/, liner /Uai-пэ/, maker /imet-кэ/. Parts of ortho¬graphic and phonetic syllables do not always coincide. E. g.

Word      Phonetic syllables   Orthographic  syllables

(Syllabographs)

table    /Itei-bl/            ta-ble

laden   /Uei-dn/          la-den

Spanish           /fspga-nij/        Span-ish

It is very important to observe correct syllable division when necessity arises to divide a word in writing. Division of words into syllables in writing (syllabographs) is based on morphological prin¬ciples. The morphological principle of word division in orthography demands that the part of a word, which is separated, should be either a prefix, or a suffix, or a root (morphograph): un-divided, utter-ance, pun-ishs be-fore.

However, if there are two or three consonants before -ing, these consonants may be separated in writing, e. g. gras-ping, puz-zling.

Words can be divided in writing according to their syllabic struc¬ture, e. g. un-kind'U-ness. They can also be divided according to their meaning, e.g. spot-light.

There are six rules to help with dividing a word in writing:

1)Never divide a word within a syllable.

2)Never divide an ending (a suffix) of two syllables such as -able,-ably, -fully.

3)With the exception of -ly, never divide a word so that an ending of two letters such as -ed, -er, -ic begins the next line.

4)Never divide a word so that one of the parts is a single letter.

5)Never divide a word of one syllable.

6)Never divide a word of less than five letters.1

If we compare the system of syllable division and syllable formation in Russian and in English, we can draw the following conclu-sions:1)       Similar syllabic structural types can be found in both languages.2) In both languages the single intervocal consonant between twophonetic syllables belongs to the next vowel:

morning /lfflo:-mn/—мо-ре

cozy /'кэи-zi/—во-ля

occasi on /э-'ке1-зп/—вб-ло-ком

The checked vowels constitute an exception, e.g. city, pity.

There is a tendency in the Russian language to accomplish syllable division before a sound of minimal sonority, e. g. тол-па, мор'Ской^. конь-ки, боч-ка, etc.

3)All consonants may begin a syllable in English, the only exception is the sound /rj/. In the system of the Russian language all consonants may begin a syllable.

4)The structure of the Russian syllable is characterized by morecomplex initial clusters. The structure of the English syllable is characterized by more complex final clusters.5)Initial CCCC type clusters constitute syllables only in Russian.6)Russian words of foreign origin with the suffixes -ция, -ия,corresponding to English words with the suffixes -tion, -y, have one extra syllable: революция — revolution, тенденция — tendency.7)English diphthongs belong to one syllable, triphthongs may be divided into two parts.

Stress, its types. The nature of word-stress. Qualitative and quantitative components of word-stress. Degrees of word-stress. Tendencies in the placement of word-stress. Functions of word-stress: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive. The most common stress patterns in English and in Russian.

Word stress its types

Word Stress(lection) – single out 1 or more s-sin a wor which is accompanied by the change of the force of the utterance, pitch of the voice, quality. And quant. Characteristics of the sounds, which is usually a vowel.

B.A.Bogoroditsky: stress is an increase of energy +  an increase of expiratory and articulatory activity

D.Jones: stress is the degree of force + a strong force of exhalation = an impression of loudness. Later he wrote: “stress or prominence is effected … by inherent sonority, vowel and consonant length and by intonation”.

Features of the stressed syllable:

a)         the force of utterance is greater;

b)         the pitch of the voice is higher;

c)         the quantity of the stressed vowel is greater, the vowel is longer;

d)        the quality of the vowel in the stressed syllable is different from the quality of the same vowel in the unstressed position.

Types of word accent:

1)         dynamic, or force, stress. – special prominence is achieved through the intensity of articulation (English stress is dynamic!!!!!)

2)         musical, or pitch, or tonic, accent. – special prominence is achieved through the change of the pitch or musical tone – Japaneese!

3)         quantitative accent – through the changes in the quantity of the V, which are longer in the stressed ss(Russian/English)

4)         qualitative accent (distringuished by some linguists, e.g. G.P. Torsuyev) – the changes in the V quantity (R/E)

Stress – 1-fixed (French), 2 – free E/R

The nature of word stress

According to the placement of word stress languages are classified into those with a fixed stress (the occurrence of the word stress is limited to a particular syllable as in French and Polish) and those with a free stress (its place is not confined to a specific position in the word as in English and Russian).

Russian accentual structure- The quantitative component plays great role Vowels of full formation and full length in unstressed positions are never pronounced, they are always reduced. The vowels of full length are perceived as stressed. The word stress is free, not fixed. It may also be shifting, performing the semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech, grammatical forms. The word stress is a means of word-building and word formation, e.g. ′дома –до′ма.

English accentual structure - The quantitative component of word stress is not of primary importance because of non-reduced vowels in the unstressed syllables which sometimes occur in English words, e.g. ´architect, ´transport. The word stress is free, not fixed. It may also be shifting, performing the semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech. The word stress is a means of word-building, e.g. ′contrast – con′trast.

The accentual structure of English words. Word accentual tendencies.

1) The recessive tendency consists in placing the accent on the initial syllable of nouns, adjectives and verbs derived from them and on the root syllable of words which belonged to other parts of speech and had a prefix.

a) Unrestricted recessive accent in Modern English falls on the initial syllable, provided it is not a prefix which has no referential meaning now, e.g. father, mother, wonder, husband, etc.

b) Restricted recessive stress falls on the root of native English words with a prefix which has no referential meaning now, e.g. among, before, forget, withstand, etc.

Most English words of Anglo-Saxon origin as well as French borrowings (dated back to the 15th century) are subjected to this recessive tendency.

2) The rhythmic tendency (the accent determined by it is called rhythmical).The presence in English of a great number of short (monosyllabic and disyllabic) words has caused the development of the tendency consisting of alternating a stressed syllable with an unstressed one. It caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multisyllabic French borrowings, e.g. ˛revo'lution, ˛organi′sation, etc.

words like radical, family, occasion, borrowed from French

1) the stress on the last syllable

2) the stress on the last syllable + the recessive stress on the initial syllable= the alternation of a stressed syllable with an unstressed one ( ´- - ´-). For some period of time this and similar words had two stresses.

3) the recessive stress on the initial syllable (the stress on the last syllable weakened and disappeared)

No rhythmical alternation of a stressed syllable with an unstressed one in such words in present-day English - historically, or diachronically, rhythmical stress.

The stress on the third syllable from the end is diachronically rhythmical

The secondary stress on the second pretonic syllable in words like pronunciation, examination; on the third syllable from the secondary pretonic stress, as in indivisibility /´ındı¸vızı´bılıtı/ - synchronically rhythmical stress.

3) The retentive tendency: a derivative retains the stress of the original or parent word, e.g. ′similar - as′similate. the retention of the primary accent of the parent word: ´person - ´personal; the retention of the accent of the parent word in the form of secondary stress: ´personal - ¸perso´nality, ′similar – ¸simi´larity, as¸simi´lation..

Constant accent remains on the same syllable in all the grammatical forms of a word or in all the derivatives from one and the same root. Retentive stress in a derivative falls on the same syllable on which it falls in the parent word, while in other derivatives from the same root it may be shifted, cf. ´person - ´personal - per´soni¸fy.

The functions of word stress

Word stress in a language performs the following functions:

1) constitutive function - Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure. Thus the word stress performs the.

2)         identificatory (recognitive) function - Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of  word.

3) distinctive function  - Word stress is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, e.g. ′import - im′port, ′billow - be′low.

4) delimitative function - In languages with the fixed word stress it serves as a sign of the beginning or the end of the following word or phrase.

Rules of word stress:

1. in word of 2/3 ss – the primary stress falls on the 1^st s - cabinet

2. in prefixal words the pr stress falls on the ss following the prefix – impossible

3. in prefixal words with prefixes having their own meaning the place of the secondary stress is on the prefix (anti, ultra)

4. in prefixal verbs which are distinguished from similarly spelt nouns and adj the place of stress is on the 2d ss. – compound v/adj

5. such suffixes as ette esque ate ize eer fy ade esce – stress is on the preceding ss or on themselves

6. such affixes as ical ic ion ity ial inal ital wards – on the preceding ss

7. 4or more ss – 3d from the end (antepenultimate ss) emergency

The most common stress patterns in English and in Russian?????

Word-stress and sentence-stress, their difference.

The stress placed on syllables within words is called word stress or lexical stress. The stress placed on words within sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress.

Sentence stress is a greater prominence of words which are made more prominent in the international group. The prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch.

Stress in utterance provide the basis for understanding the content, they help to per-form constitutive, distinctive, indemnificatory function of intonation.

Word stress is definitely the key to understanding spoken English and it is used so naturally by native speakers of the English language that they are not even aware they are doing it. When non native speakers talk to English natives without the use of word stress they are likely to encounter two problems:

1. The listener will find it difficult to understand the fast speaking native.

2. The native speakers may find it difficult to understand the non native speakers.

Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress is indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syl-lable.

Stress is defined differently by different authors. B. A. Bogoroditsky,

for instance, defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an

increase of expiratory and articulatory activity. D. Jones defined stress as

the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhala¬

tion and gives an impression of loudness.     H. Sweet also stated that stress

is connected with the force of breath.

Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more sylla¬bles in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualita-tive and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.

3.         Suprasegmental phonetics and phonology: prosody and intonation

Prosody. Prosodic units. Intonation. Definitions of intonation: Intonation in the works of Russian and foreign scholars. Components of intonation. The pitch component of intonation. The units of the pitch component of intonation: pitch range, pitch level and terminal tone. The phonological status of English terminal tones. The functions of speech melody. Sentence (utterance) stress. Types of utterance stress: nuclear, non-nuclear, full stress, partial stress. Tempo. Degrees and types of tempo. Functions of tempo. Pauses. Types of pauses. Functions of pauses. Rhythm. Stress-timed and syllable-timed rhythm. Two approaches to rhythmic division: formal and semantic (grammatical). Types of rhythm. Rhythmic units in poetry and prose. Functions of rhythm. Utterance, its intonation structure.

In linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσῳδία, prosōidía, [prosɔːdía], "song sung to music; pronunciation of syllable") is the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech. Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance (statement, question, or command); the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary. The term “prosody” can substitute the term “intonation”.

Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental features of speech: 1. melody, pitch of the voice; 2. sentence stress; 3. temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); 4. rhythm; 5. tamber.

Intonation organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. The two main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive.

There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical.

The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, L. Arm-strong, and others. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic mean-ing can be attached is a sense-group. Their theory is based that intonation consists of basic functional "blocks".

The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M. Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker. Halliday's theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation.

The tone unit is one of the most important of intonation theory. The interval between the highest and the lowest pitch syllable is called the range of a sence group. The higher the pitch, the wider the range. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone group is called a nuclear tone. It may occur not only in the nucleus, but extend to the tail terminal tone.

Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken without any change of prosodic parameters but intonation functions in various languages in a dif-ferent way.

There is wide agreement among Russian linguists that on perception level intonation is a complex, a whole, formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo close-ly related. Some Russian linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intona-tion. Neither its material form nor its linguistic function has been thoroughly described. Though speech timbre definitely conveys certain shades of attitudinal or emotional mean-ing there is no good reason to consider it alongside with the three prosodic components of intonation, i.e. pitch, loudness and tempo.

Many foreign scholars (A. Gimson, R. Kingdon) restrict the formal definition of into-nation to pitch movement alone, though occasionally allowing in variations of loudness as well. According to D. Crystal, the most important prosodic effects are those conveyed by the linguistic use of pitch movement, or melody. It is clearly not possible to restrict the term intonation by the pitch parameters only because generally all the three prosodic pa-rameters function as a whole though in many cases the priority of the pitch parameter is quite evident.

The pitch component of intonation. The units of the pitch component of intonation: pitch range, pitch level and terminal tone.

The pitch is the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a tone. Pitch level is determined by the highest pitched syllable of the utterance (goes horizontally – high-mid-low) americ - +extrahigh. Pitch range is the interval between the highest and the lowest pitched ss of the utter. (narrow-mid-wide). The basic element of speech melody is the tone (terminal/nuclear tones are especially important).Tone:kinetic-moving (complex-RF/FR, simple-LF/LR/HF/HR),static-stable-the statement is pron-ed at 1 effort, level-simply accented words.

Sentence (utterance) stress. Types of utterance stress: nuclear, non-nuclear, full stress, partial stress

Sentence stress is a greater prominence of words, which are made more prominent in an intonation group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, accompanied by changes in the quantity of the vowels under stress (in unstressed position vowels may undergo qualitative changes, see unstressed vocalism).

The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance correlate with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is the strongest — it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head of an intonation group, partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail. Partial stresses in the prehead are most frequently of a low variety, high partial stress can occur before a low head. Words given partial stress do not lose their prominence completely, they retain the whole quality of a vowel.

In tone-groups stress may undergo alternations under the influence of rhythm, but there are some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an utterance.

Sentence stress - a special prominence given to one or more words so as to single them out among the other words in the same intonation group or in the whole sentence. It is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, accompanied by changes in the quantity of the vowels under stress. The sentence stress serves as the basis for the rhythmical structure of the sentence.

Nuclear stress is the strongest – it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full (in the head of an intonation group) and partial (in the head, pre-head, tail).

The word accent of a monosyllable may disappear in a sentence. The loss of stress in form words usually results in their quantitative, qualitative or zero reduction.

Different degrees of sentence-stress distinguish emphatic sentences from unemphatic ones.

Usually stressed: nouns; adjectives; numerals; interjections; demonstrative pronouns; emphatic pronouns; possessive pronouns (absolute form); interrogative pronouns; indefinite pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as subject); indefinite negative pronouns no, none, no one, nobody, nothing; indefinite pronouns some, any (expressing quality); indefinite pronouns all, each, every, other, either, both; indefinite quantitative pronouns much, many, a little, a few; notional verbs; auxiliary verbs (negative contracted forms); two-word prepositions; two-word conjunctions; particles only, also, too, even, just.

Usually unstressed: personal pronouns; reflexive pronouns; reciprocal pronouns; relative pronouns; possessive pronouns; indefinite pronouns somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as object); indefinite pronouns some, any (when expressing quantity); auxiliary verbs (affirmative form); one-word prepositions and conjunctions; articles; particles there, to; modal verbs (contracted forms and general questions are exceptions).

Tempo. Degrees and types of tempo. Functions of tempo. Pauses. Types of pauses. Functions of pauses. Rhythm. Stress-timed and syllable-timed rhythm. Two approaches to rhythmic division: formal and semantic (grammatical). Types of rhythm. Rhythmic units in poetry and prose. Functions of rhythm. Utterance, its intonation structure.

Rhythm and tempo

Rhythm - the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables.

A rhythmic group (a stress-group, a phonetic word) - a group of syllables consisting of one stressed syllable and the preceding and/or following unstressed ones.

The stressed syllable is the prosodic nucleus of the rhythmic group.

 The initial unstressed syllables preceding the nucleus - proclitics, those following the nucleus - enclitics.

The semantic viewpoint: the unstressed syllables tend to be drawn towards the stressed syllable of the same word or to the lexical unit according to their semantic connection, concord with other words, e.g.

Negro Harlem / became / the largest / colony / of coloured people.

The enclitic tendency: the unstressed syllables in between the stressed ones tend to join the preceding stressed syllable, e.g.

Negro Harlem / became the / largest / colony  of / coloured people.

The enclitic tendency is more typical of the English language. The speech tempo and style often regulate the division into rhythmic groups.

The tempo - the rate of the utterance and pausation. The rate of speech: normal, slow, fast. Changes in the tempo of English speech caused by the regularity of its rhythm are closely connected with changes in the length of English sounds, especially vowels.

To keep a good natural English rhythm it is necessary to pronounce stressed syllables at more or less regular intervals of time and to fit in unstressed syllables between them. In order to achieve this, the length of vowels in syllables is either increased or decreased.

Stressed vowels are shorter if followed by unstressed syllables than if followed by another stressed syllable. Compare the length of /æ/ in the word Ann:

'Ann 'went to the ˎcinema.          'Ann has 'gone to the ˎcinema.

In the first sentence the stressed vowel /æ/ is longer than in the second. Thus, the length of the unstressed syllables depends on their number. When there are many unstressed syllables, they are pronounced quicker and their vowels are shorter than when there are few of them.

The parts of the utterance which are particularly important sound slower.

Pausation and tamber

Any stretch of speech can be split into smaller portions, i.e. phonetic wholes ( a chain of oral speech which is semantically and intonationally complete, may be equal to a phrase or include several phrases), phrases, intonation groups by means of pauses.

Pause - a complete stop of phonation.

Functionally, there may be distinguished the following types of pauses:

•          syntactic

•          emphatic

•          hesitation

История английского языка

1. Origin of the English dialect

Historical background and pre-Germanic Britain

The history of English language begins with the invasion of Germanic tribes (5^th century). The British Isles were inhabited by prehistoric population and the earliest inhabitants were Celts (Celtic tribes) and they preceded(были предшественниками) the Germans.

They began to settle in Britain in the 7^th c. B.C. The earliest and highly civilized tribe was the tribe of Britons (племя Бриттов).

They had driven the predecessors into (отодвинули предшественников)Ireland, Wales, Scotland. The third wave of Celtic settlers was the Belgae (белги). They came later and they settled the home countries.

The Celtic tribes spoke dialects belonging to the Celtic groups. It wasn't the only language spoken on the British territory. Celtic Britain was a province of the Roman Empire. The first attempt to occupy the British Isles was made by Julius Caesar before B.C.

The Celtic tribes began to penetrate into (проникать внутрь)the Isles and 100 years later under Empire of Roman.

The Romans brought to Barbarian Britain the administration (управление, контроль), their way of life and their language.

The Celtic tribes were influenced by Roman civilization. The Romans founded military settlements or campus. The names of these settlements survived in some place names Manchester – castra - крепость.

They built roads (strata via – мощеная дорога), towns of Roman soldiers and they named this towns - colonies. The word "colony" survived in some names - Colchester. The growth of towns was very considerable. Among the trading centers of Roman Empire London was the most significant. It was a small settlement. It turned into the intensive town.

Wealthy roman landowners lived there. Under Roman occupation the Celts in Britain were Romanized to a certain degree and the influence (вероятно была больше)must have been stronger in the town than in the country side.

The use of Latin language grew; the Romanization began in the 5^th century and lasted up the period of West Germanic tribes. At this time most traces (черты, следы)of the Roman rule, economic and linguistic were destroyed(the period of West Germanic tribes). The Romans occupation of Britain lasted until the 5^th century. In 410 the Roman legions were withdrawn(ушли, ретировались). The withdraw of the Roman Empire was final and the Roman Empire was breaking up. After the Romans had left the British Isles. The Roman speech affected (повлиял)the British language and they had acquired from the Romans and from the Romanized Celts new lexical units and concepts. But they had contacts with the Romans while they lived on the continent before the migration to Britain.

Their ties with the Latin language were strengthened in later ages. They marked the influence of Latin on Old English. The Germanic invaders made 2 kinds of linguistic contacts:

• with the spoken dialects of the Celtic grammar

·         with the Latin language

Germanic settlement of Britain

Germanic raiders (германские рейды)began their attacks on Britain in the first half of the 5^th century. And the conquest extended over a long period. The most part of Britain was colonized by the West Germanic tribes.

It lasted into the 6^th century. The newcomers dispossessed(вытеснить) soon other Germanic tribes, they came in clans(кланы) and families. They migrated and the Germanic invasion was different from the Roman occupation. The invaders came from the western subdivision of Germanic tribes. They were Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.

The Jutes had been the first to arrive here from Jutland.

The tribes of Ancient Germans in Scandinavian remained isolated. Only small group crossed the Baltic Sea and settled in Jutland (Ютландия - полуостров в Дании и Германии, между Северным и Балтийским морями).

They occupied the land in the South-East of Britain. This part of Britain became known as the Kingdom of Kent.

Saxons came from low-land Germany (равнинные германцы). They settled on the both banks of the river Thames. And they became known as west-, east-, middle and south Saxons.All of them consolidated into the Kingdom of West Saxons-Wessex.

 Last came the Angles from the low basin of river Alba and Southern Denmark. They occupied the territory between the Wash and Hambour. They consolidated into the Kingdom - Mercia, Anglia and North Numbria (Northumbria).

The bulk of the population of England sprang of (отделиться)the newcomers, later under feudalism social differentiation and surviving Celtic tribes blended into(слились) one nation. The invader prevailed over natives and after the settlement Germanic dialects were spoken all over Britain with the exception of Wales, Scotland, Cornwall.

Old English dialects

The tribes who had settled in England spoke Old English dialects. They belong to the West Germanic dialects. These dialects were closely related and they (tribes) spoke the same dialect with slight dialectic distinction (variations). Gradually in the course of English period the nature of the dialects changed from tribal dialects. And these dialects were spoken by the people of the certain locality and the boundaries between the dialects had shifted (сместились). There was no correspondence between the tribal dialects of the invaders and the local dialect of the population of England. There was no intercourse(соц. взаимодействий) between the districts of Old English, that's why the dialects didn't blend(не смешались) together.

The term "Old English" isn't a name of a language in the modern sense. It is used to denote a group of West Germanic dialects, spoken in Britain from 6^th-11^th centuries and related through their common origin. They were separated from other Germanic dialects and they had joined evolution in Britain. Differentiation between the dialects became sharper in Britain due to isolation of different parts of the country. The Old English dialects had inherited similar traits from Germanic and developed new features and due to these features them from other Germanic dialects and from common Germanic.

We distinguish 4 dialects in Old English:

1.       Kentish, spoken in Kent. Had developed from the speech of the Youths Jutes and was preserved in records from the 7^th century

2.       West Saxon dialect (Wessex) – the main dialect of the Saxon group. The earliest British manuscripts date in the 9^th century

3.       Mercian dialect, spoken in the Kingdom of Mercia and had developed from the language of the Angles

4.       North Hungrian() dialect. Another dialect of Angles and it was spoken in the North of the river Humbra( Northumbria)

The distinction between Mercian and North Hungrian dialects shows that the languages didn't coincide with (совпадали)original dialects. The earliest records of the dialects refer to the 7^th century. The features of most Old English dialects may be contrasted to those of other Germanic dialects. We termed them Old English language (not West Saxon).

2. Periods in the history of English

The first period, which may be termed Early Old English, lasts from the West Germanic invasion of Britain till the beginning of writing, that is from the 5^th to the close of the 7^th c. It is the stage of the tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders, which were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues. The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being no written form of English.

The second historical period extends from the 8^th c. till the end of the 11^th. The English language of that time is referred to as Old English. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects. Towards the end of the period the differences between the dialects grew and their relative position altered(изменяться). They were probably equal as a medium of oral communication, while in the sphere of writing one of the dialects, West Saxon, had gained supremacy (превосходство)over the other dialects. The language of this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a more or less stable system.

The third period, known as Early Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12^th, 13^th and half of the 14^th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. The dialectal division of present-day English owes its origin to this period of history. Under Norman rule the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature.

The fourth period – from the later 14^th c. till the end of the 15^th – embraces (в объятиях)the age of Chaucer, the greatest English medieval writer and forerunner (предвестник)of the English Renaissance. We may call it Late or Classical Middle English. It was the time of the restoration of English to the position of the state and literary language and the time of literary flourishing(процветание). The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. The literary authority of other dialects was gradually overshadowed by the prestige of the London written language.

The fifth period is called Early New English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. It was a time of great historical consequence: under the growing capitalist system the country became economically and politically unified. Caxton’s English of the printed books was a sort of bridge between the London literary English of the ME period and the language of the Literary Renaissance. This period was also a time of sweeping (отметания)changes at all levels, in the first place lexical and phonetic. The growth of the vocabulary was a natural reflection of the progress of culture in the new, bourgeois society.  

The sixth period extends from the mid-17^th c. to the close of the 18^th c. In the history of the language it is often called “the age of normalization and correctness”, in the history of literature – the “neoclassical” age. It is essential that during the 18^th c. literary English differentiated into distinct styles, which is a property of a mature literary language. The 18^th c. has been called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and normalization.

The English language of the 19^th and 20^th c. represents the seventh period in the history of English. It is called Late New English or Modern English. The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished from the local dialects and the dialects of lower social rank. The dialects were used in oral communication and, as a rule, had no literary tradition. The 20^th c. witnessed (свидетельствует о значительном смешении)considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated(отступать) and displaced by Standard English. The English vocabulary has grown on an unprecedented scale reflecting the rapid progress of technology, science and culture and other multiple changes in all spheres of man’s activity.

3. Rise of the London dialect

The Norman Conquest was not only a great event in British political history but also the greatest single event in the history of the English language. The Norman Conquerors of England had originally come from Scandinavia. First they had seized(завладели) the valley of the Seine and settled in what is known as Normandy. They were swiftly assimilated by the French and in the 11^th c. came to Britain as French speakers. Their tongue in Britain is often referred to as “Anglo-French” or “Anglo-Norman”, but may just as well be called French. The most important consequence of Norman domination in Britain is to be seen in the wide use of the French language in many spheres of life. For almost three hundred years French was the official language of administration: it was the language of the king’s court, the church, the army and others. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French-speaking people. For all(несмотря на) that, England never stopped being an English-speaking country. The bulk of the population spoke their own tongue and looked upon(смотреть на- считать французов за иностранцев) French as foreign and hostile(враг, враждебный). At first two languages existed side by side without mingling(без смешания). Then, slowly and quietly, they began to penetrate each other. The three hundred years of the domination of French affected English more than any other foreign influence before or after. The early French borrowings reflect accurately(точно) the spheres of Norman influence upon(=on) English life; later borrowings can be attributed(приписаны) to the continued(продолжительный) cultural, economic and political contacts between the countries.  

In the late 14^th century English was reestablished as the official language of Britain, the literary language of English dates from the 14^th century. The 300 years of domination of the French language affected the English language in many spheres. The greater influence of French in the high ranks(ранг в обществе) of society led to great differences in original and social dialects. A more specific influence was made on the alphabet and spelling. From the phonetic structure of the language, especially word accentuation(манера произношения) was affected by the numerous numbers of French borrowings, which were adopted by the English language. However the influence of French affected the grammatical structure of the language.

The dialect division which evolved(развивалось) in Early ME was on the whole preserved in later periods. In the 14^th and 15^th c. we find the same grouping of local dialects: the Southern group, including Kentish and the South-Western dialects (the South-Western group was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects), the Midland or Central (corresponding to the OE Mercian dialect – is divided into West Midland and East Midland as two main areas) and the Northern group (had developed from OE Northumbrian). And yet the relations between them were changing. The most important event in the changing linguistic situation was the rise of the London dialect as the prevalent written form of language. The history of the London dialect reveals(обнаруживать, раскрываться) the sources of the literary language in Late ME and also the main source and basis of the Literary Standard, both in its written and spoken forms. The Early ME written records made in London – beginning with the PROCLAMATION of 1258 – show that the dialect of London was fundamentally East Saxon. Later records indicate that the speech of London was becoming more fixed, with East Midland features gradually prevailing over the Southern features.

In the 14^th century English revived(возрождаться) as the official language. The 4 main dialects: Northern, Southern, West and East were struggling for supremacy(превосходство) but none of them predominated. Literary English originated from the language of the 14^th century. The London dialect had developed from several local dialects. The history of the London reveal(разоблачать) source of the literary English in Mid. English period. The London dialect was the main source of the national English language in its written and spoken forms. The history of London reaches back(уходит в прошлое) to Roman days. In OE times London was the biggest town in Britain also the capital of Wessex.

In 1018 1/8 of all Danegeld(сбора во время датского правления, собранного по стране) collected from all over the country came from London. The capital was transferred to London before the Norman Conquest. The early ME records were made in London in 1258. It was the London proclamation(провозглашение). These records show that London dialects came from the East Saxon dialects, from the South-Western dialects of the Southern groups.

The speech of London became more mixed with East-Middle features. They prevailed gradually over the Southern features. That explained that the mixed character of London speech is based in the history of the London population. In the 12^th and 14^th centuries the inhabitants of London came from the neighboring South-Western districts. In the middle of 14^th century London was practically depopulated due to the Black Death(черная смерть - чума). About of 1/3 of the population of Britain died. The biggest proportion of death came to London. But in 1377 London had already many inhabitants. Most of arrivals came from the East Midland and the other districts. It was wealthy resettlement of medieval Britain(средневековый). In the late 14^th century the speech of the Londoners was brought closer to the East Midland dialect.

East Midland dialect

From the 14^th century a large number of the official and literary papers written in London dialect showed a large number of Midland dialect features. The London dialect becomes East Midland in character. The flourishing of literature in the second half of the 14^th century testifies(торжественно устанавливает) the establishment of London dialect as the literary language. Some authors wrote their works by means of the local dialects which differed from the London dialect. Other author represented various combinations of London and original dialects. Towards the end of the century more and more works were written in the London dialect. It became the most common form of language. One of the most prominent authors was John de Trevisa. In 1332 he translated 7 books of the World History from Latin to South-Western dialects of English. Trevisa's manner of speech was greatly influenced by French.

The Mercian dialects were spoken in central England but they were understood by neighboring (people from the North and South districts). Of great linguistic importance was the activity of John Wycliffe. He was the forerunner of the English reformation. His contribution(вклад) to English was his and his pupils translation of the Bible which was completed in 1384. Besides he wrote some pamphlets where he criticized the corruption of the church. His texts were often copied and read by many people all over the country. He wrote mostly using the London dialect and it played an important role in the spreading of this dialect of English. John Goer – another poet (author) was born not far from London, nearer to Kent. But there are not many Kentisms in his works. (These) His poems were written in Anglo-Norman and Latin.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer, a famous writer before the age of Shakespeare, played the most important role in development of London dialect. In the history of English he was described by many writers as faunder of literary English language. He was born about the year 1340. He was an ambassador, official employee, a member of parliament. He communicated with all sorts of people and in his works he gave a true and vivid(живую) picture of England. He wrote in a dialect which coincided in(совпадать) the main features with the London dialect. He didn't create the literary language as poet of outstanding talent. But he made better use of the literary language in his poems and he set up the pattern of the literary language. In the period of the 14^th to the 15^th century his poems were copied all over the country and his books were among the first to be printed hundred years after the composition. Author's literary language is based on the mixed East Midland dialect of London. It is known as a classical Middle English. In the 15^th-16^th centuries it became the basis of the national standard form of a written language.

4. The Great vowel shift

Magic change in the pronunciation of English language. It took place in the south of England between 1200-1600. GVS was first studied by Danish linguist, Otto Jesperson. He created this term. Main difference between pronunciation ME and Modern English.

GVS is the most important historical event. It marked the separation between ME and Modern English. These vowels had continental values.

During GVS 2 highest long became diphthongs. Other 5 vowels increase in tongue high.

Principal changes:

1. MidE [long a] fronted to open[ǽ] and then raised to [e]. In many dialects it diphthongoised into [ei] [make]

2. MidE [] raised into [e] and to [i:]

3. MidE [ei] raised into down [i] [fit]

4. MidE [i]? (miss) diphthongoised to ModE [ai] [mise]

5. MidE [o:] raised to [o] and ModE [ou] boat

6. MidE [o:] raised to [u]

7. [u:] raised into diphthong [ou] – ModE [au] mouse

But before labial consonants this shift did not occur and [u] remains as [u:] root

Labial (губные)consonants are divided into:

- bilabial consonants which are articulated by two lips [p, b, m, w];

- labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth [v, f].

This means that the vowel in some English words was pronounced similar to modern vowels.

But the effects of vowel shift were not entirely uniformed in all dialects. Differences in degree of vowel shifting can be detected in region dialects both on written and oral form [speech of Scotland]

Shortening of long vowels produced complications:

 Shortening before [d ] and [t∫]   dead –[did]

Some borrowings have a spelling form origin by ratianed – they are treated as exceptions of GVS

English spelling was becoming standardiezed in 15-17 centuries. GVS is responsible for many of peculiarities of English spelling.

Лексикология 

1. Morphemes and their types

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful lexical unit.

Phoneme – meaningless unit

Lexical units

·         morphemes

·         words

·         set expressions

Морфемный анализ

cloud-y

de-nat-ion-al-iz-ation

Classification of morphemes

1. The semantic classification

1. root-morpheme remains after removing all functional and derivational (словообразующие) affixes. It is recurrent in word of the family (повторяется) and has an individual lexical meaning. [re-do]

2. non-root-morphemes are morphemes which added to the root morpheme to make new forms of the same word of new words. (строить формы слова: -s, -ing, -ed –derivational affixes? )

The functional classification of non-root morphemes

1. inflexions – they carry only grammatical meaning (specific feature of any syntactical language)

2. affixes  - derivational morphemes (словообразовательные)– are added to the base and modify its meaning or form new words.

do – redo (переделать)

prefixes – stay before the root morpheme

suffixed – stay after the root morpheme

interfixes – stay between stems (handicraft,  Anglo-Saxon)

2. Structural classification

1. free morphemes (встречаться как свободно функционирующие слова) can be found as independent functioning words.

friendship :

friend  - free morpheme, word friend

ship  - not the word ship but suffix

2. bound morphemes (связанные) are morphemes which occur (встречаются) only as a constituent part of a word.

terr-or, horr-or

terr, horr – таких слов нет

3. Functional classification

1. unique morphemes  are met only in one word of the given language

cran-berry

2. recurrent morphemes are met in a number of words

straw-berry

2. Compound words and their types

Another means of word formation is called composition. Composition is such word formation when the target word is formed by combining two or more stems. Usually the first component modifies or qualifies the second one. Compound words are hard to distinguish from free word combinations.

Compound words are words created by word composition.

ice-cream, bathroom, horse race – написание смотри в словаре

The structure of compound words

1. neutral are such compound which are formed without any linking element. They are build by mere juxtaposition (соединение) of two or more words.

ship-window, baby-sitter, marry-go-round

a) simple neutral compound  - consists of simple affixless stem

shop-window, bedroom,  sunflower, toy-boy, E-free (без консервантов)

b) derived compound – these are compound with affixes in their structure

teenager = teenag-er,  [crash-worth]-ness

c) contracted – these are compound words with a shortened stem in their structure

V-day (день победы) , TV-set (обе основы сокращ)

2. morphological compound- these are compound words with 2 stems linked by a vowel or consonant

[Angl]o-Saxon, [spoke]s[man]

3. syntactic compound  - are formed from segments of speech. They are formed according the grammatical pattern existing in present day language.

marry-go-round, lily-of-the-valley (ландыш майский), good-for-nothing (никуда не годный), sit-at-home (домосед)

The semantics of compound words

1. completely motivated compounds (понятные по значению) – non-ideomatic

Their meaning can be described as a sum of their constituent parts

sky-blue (главная часть обычно стоит в конце – небесно голубой)

tea-tester – дегустатор чая

2. partially motivated compounds

One of their components had changed its meaning though the meaning reminas transparent (понятный)

football (это не мяч, это игра в мяч)

---

3. non-motivated – idiomatic

a ladybird (божья коровка), tallboy (комод), a horse-marine ( человек, который занимает не свое место)

a tallboy – compound word, tall boy – словосочетание (word combination)

The criteria for distinguishing between a compound and a word combination

(plural – criteria, singular- criterion)

1. graphic criterion

Most of the compound words spelled either solidly (слитно) or with a hyphen (дефис)

I-know-what-you-are-going-to-say = word adjective

2. the semantic criterion

This criterion is especially important for idiomatic compound. In a few word combinations each component has its meaning.

Ex: blackbird  - дрозд  -  I saw a black bird ( я видел черную птицу)

3. the phonetic criterion

The compound words acquire a new stress pattern.

a ‘key a ‘hole – a ‘keyhole

4. the morphological and syntactical criteria

a) morphological

 in word combination each component is opened to grammar changes

a tall boy -> a taller boy, a tall boys

a tallboy -> a tallboys

b) syntactical

New components can be introduced into a word group (word combination)

a tall handsome boy

3. Semasiology. Monosemy and polysemy.

Gotlib Frege, Ferdinand de Saussure

The units of language (or lexical units) are two-facet elements, they possess form and meaning. The basic unit of the vocabulary is the word. Morphemes are part of words into which the words can be segmented.

We determine the word as a linguistic sign. The word denotes objects or phenomena and gives names to them.

Some linguists consider as criteria the following feature: words are the smallest units of a language that can be used alone as a sentence (Fire! Here. Go! – one-member sentences). Another criterion for word identification is its mobility. The word is the smallest unit which can be moved to one position or another in a sentence.

The word is one of the fundamental units of language, it is a dialectical unity of form and content. The content and meaning are not identical in notion. Notions which are fixed in the meaning of words are formed as correct reflections of reality. The acoustic aspect of the word serves to denote the objects of reality. The word is always built out of the elements which already exist in a language and according to the existing patterns. The word as a basic unit of language directly corresponds to the object or referent.

The notion is generalized idea of the class of objects denoted by the given word.

The meaning is something that correlates all the three points of the semantic triangle.

The sound form gives a name to the referent is reflected in the notion and the notion is represented in the word.

Meaning is a complex of the three aspects which holds the total experience of the community in different spheres of life.

Ex: narcodollars,  floatel (гостиница на воде)

Types of meaning

1. de’notative (значимый)

It expressed the conceptual content of the word. The denotative meaning shows the correlations between words and objects which they denote.

2. co’nnotative meaning (дополнительный)

There are 2 types of connotative meaning

a) emotive charge (эмоциональная нагрузка)

The component of meaning which gives information about the emotion of the speaker.

large – tremendous (эмоциональная нагрузка)

Oh! – только эмоциональная

b) stylistic reference (стилистическая референция)

the sphere of application of the word

child- neutral, kind – colloquial, infant - bookish

The word is a parcel of linguistic experience. The semantic side of the word is its meaning. Meaning is a fact of language. It is also associated with a given segment of concept and a given piece of linguistic expression. Meaning is always an abstraction from concrete facts of extra linguistic reality. It becomes a fact of language only when the connection established between this fact of reality and the certain sound complex. Meaning as a fact of language should be distinguished from concept. Concept is a unit of thinking. Meaning is based on dialectal unity of expression and content. The main units of meaning are words of a human language. They are bilateral two sided units. We determine the word as a linguistic sign. The word denotes objects or phenomena and gives names to them.

Words are global by definition, they are rooted in objective reality. The branch of the study of language which studies the meanings of words and word equivalents is called semasiology (“sema” = meaning).

Semasiology studies the semantics of linguistic units, the meanings of words, expressions or grammatical forms.

Considered in meaning English vocabulary falls into 2 groups: notional words and form-words (служебные слова).

Notional words embody (воплощать)concepts. They name objects or things, phenomena, states, processes, actions, qualities, etc. They are usually divided into 2 smaller groups: concrete and abstract.

Form-words show relations between concept and they may be divided into 2 groups as well: conjunctions and prepositions. The grammatical meaning dominates over the lexical meaning in form-words. Prepositions show relations between an object and another object, an object and a feature, an object and a process. Conjunctions connect words within a sentence or sentences together.

The meanings of words are studied and registered in dictionaries. Words which gave one meaning only are termed as monosemantic.

Monocemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. The greatest number of words is polysemantic.

Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings as the result of development and changes of the primary or original meaning.

“Air”:

·         the mixture of gasses; - primary

·         breeze, a very light wind; - secondary

·         aria = melody - secondary

·         a way of behaving. - secondary

In a polysemantic word different types of meanings are distinguished. The first is called direct, primary, logical meaning. It is directed straight at the object it denotes. Sometimes it is called the main nominative meaning. [table – piece of furiture]

The meanings which are formed out of the main nominative meanings are traditionally called derived meanings or secondary meanings. These meanings are characterized by free-combine-ability (свободная сочетаемость). [table – part of machine – стол станка]

Other meanings of the word depend on collocation and colligation.

Collocation is a combination of words which condition the realization of a certain meaning (обуславливать определенное значение). This meaning is called a phraseologicaly bound meaning (фразеологически связанное).

make a mistake, do a test  - when the words used together regularly, rules are formed about their use not for grammatical reasons.

Colligation is morphosyntactically conditions combinability of words. It’s means of realizing polysemy. It is called a constructional conditioned meaning (значение обусловленное структурой). [make do smb/smth – заставлять?]

We can use surprising, amazing, astonishing – It is amazing  but we can use negative only with surprising – It is not surprising

The word is polysemantic in language but in actual speech it is always monosemantic and the context makes it monosemantic. The context shows that there is stability in the use of words. Natural sciences offer the most stable words because they have a clear denotation.

Denotation is the expression of the main meaning of the word.

Connotation is the supplementary meaning or stylistic shade. It is added to word’s main meaning. Connotation serves to express all sorts of emotional, expressive and evaluative shades.

Connotation facilitates shift in meaning. The meanings of words change constantly. The reasons for changes are various:

·         The linguistic unit should be used with a reference to a new object or phenomena (the extralinguistic reasons).

·         The linguistic unit  is itself subject to change and this reference  may become transformed (the introlinguistic reasons).